Gender,
Race and Ethnicity: Key Elements of Unexploited Workforce Diversity’ – A Free
Research Paper – A Free Empirical Research Article
A Paper Presented At:
‘Rethinking Gender, Work and Organisation:
Gender, Work and Organisation Conference -
An International
Interdisciplinary Conference’,
Keele University,
Staffordshire, England
June
27-29, 2001
Prof Dr Crawford – Director
HRODC Postgraduate Training
Institute
ABSTRACT
‘Organisations
are endowed with varying degrees of diversity but this variety is often
unexploited’
Gender, Race and
Ethnicity have become much of a cliché in relation to institutional
discriminatory practices. However, socio-political and economic dynamics have
propelled ‘inclusion’ to a ‘survival imperative’. It is a fact that modern organisations make constant effort to improve
their effectiveness. This effort incorporates their search for new and
innovative ways of operating, necessitating the efficient utilisation of their
resources. Efficient utilisation of the workforce means that the organisation
values the contribution that diversity can make to the accomplishment of their
objectives. Despite the existence of elements of diversity in organisations,
some have largely disregarded their importance. Recently, however, many
practitioners, consultants and academics have agreed that the diversity within
organisations can be exploited to the benefit of organisational effectiveness.
This paper, drawing on empirical evidence from qualitative and
quantitative analyses, charts organisational failings, through
under-capitalisation of vital resources, pointing to alternatives for enhanced
effectiveness. While citing specific cases where effective diversity management
could have spared organisations economic catastrophe, it presents evidence of
establishments, internationally, that have succeeded, in this regard, thereby
enhancing their effectiveness.
While existing empirical evidence of effective utilisation
and under-utilisation of a diverse workforce is meta-analysed, new evidence is
produced from a large UK organisation as a demonstration of the intensity of
the problem. Data elicitation techniques include questionnaire administration
and interviews. All quantitative data is comparatively analysed, chi-squared,
with the level of significance taken at p < 0.05 (see Wisniewski and Stead,
1996; Kanji, 1993; Lapin, 1990; and Cass, 1973).
It finds that the case study organisation is inherently biased, with
regard to gender, race and ethnicity. Consequently, it is deprived of the
contribution that its diverse workforce can make to its effectiveness. Specifically,
it fails to draw on the valuable marketing intelligence that diversity affords.
Mindful of the need for organisations
to have ‘social conscience’ it reminds them of their legal obligation towards
diversity, advising of the political, social and economic implications of their
actions. It implores organisations to ‘exploit’ the opportunity that diversity
presents, for the long-term effectiveness of the enterprise.
INTRODUCTION
In a competitive climate, when some organisations can
do little more than to ‘survive’, these entities need to be mindful of the
factors that contribute to their effectiveness. In their effort to achieve
satisfactory organisational objectives, they often develop an awareness of
crucial internal and external environmental opportunities and constraints.
While availing themselves of the opportunities, they search for ways of
circumventing the constraints. In this regard, they need to find ways to boost
operational effectiveness, notably through more efficient resource utilisation,
while adhering to legal requirements. One issue, which relates to both sides of
this equation, is workforce diversity. On the one hand, the organisation has to
comply with existing legislation, and meet its own ethical standards. On the
other hand, it needs to ‘exploit’ the potential of its diverse workforce.
This Paper draws on
empirical evidence from qualitative and quantitative analyses, to suggest
organisational failings, due to under-capitalisation of vital resources, and
points to alternatives for enhancing organisational effectiveness. It cites
cases where effective diversity management may have spared organisations
economic catastrophe, and presents evidence that some international
establishments have made strides, in this regard – thereby enhancing their
organisational effectiveness. It also provides a guide to managers for dealing
with a diverse workforce, and focuses specifically on gender, race and
ethnicity.
While the paper provides a meta-analysis
of the research evidence, both for the effective utilisation and
under-utilisation of a diverse workforce, it also presents new evidence from a
large UK organisation to further highlight the problem. Data elicitation
techniques include questionnaire administration and interviews. All quantitative
data is comparatively analysed, chi-squared, with the level of significance
taken at p < 0.05 (see Wisniewski and Stead, 1996; Kanji, 1993; Lapin, 1990;
and Cass, 1973).
The paper
examines relevant Acts of parliament that address sexual, racial and ethnic
discrimination and the degree to which they may be effective. Mindful of the need for organisations to have a
‘social conscience’, it advises that business and non-business organisations
have legal obligations towards diversity, and need to be aware of the
political, social and economic implications of their actions (see e.g.
Stephenson & Lewin, 1996). Given their obligations towards diversity, the
challenge for organisations is to ‘exploit’ the opportunities that such
diversity offers for increasing long-term organisational effectiveness.
EXPLORING WORKFORCE DIVERSITY:
CONCEPTUAL AND ANALYTICAL BASES
Defining
Workforce Diversity
The concept of diversity remains an undefined and
fairly ambiguous area. Nevertheless, some bases for an understanding of the
issues that it involves do exist. Diversity might be regarded as “the types of
dimensions on which an organisation’s employees differ” (Hicks-Clarke and Iles,
2000, p.324) or “the vast array of physical and cultural differences that
constitute the spectrum of human diversity" (Loden & Rosener, 1991,
P.3). It incorporates, but not confined to, equal
opportunities, which promotes fairness towards all employees, including women
and ethnic minorities. Certo (2000, p. 28) defines diversity as the degree of
basic human differences among a given population – suggesting gender, race,
ethnicity, religion, social class, physical ability, sexual orientation and age
as major areas. Based on the assumption that religion is largely cultural,
relating to ethnicity, this Paper wishes to regard religious affiliation as an
inherent aspect of ethnicity – thereby treating it inclusively.
Harvey and
Allard’s (1995) graphical representation of diversity dimensions, suggests an
array of differences in two groups – incorporating two concentric circles – not
presented, here, because of the controversy that it creates regarding which
attributes are achieved and which ascribed. This is because some of these
attributes change over time, with or without an individual’s conscious effort. We are inclined to accept Loden and Rosener’s
(1991) diversity categorisation - one with which Gomez-Mejia, Balkin and Cardy
(2001) are in agreement. They suggest two distinct groups of variations, one
over which individuals have little or no control. The other category, they
suggest, consists of elements over which individuals have some influence. However,
like Harvey and
Alan’s model, it is difficult to be prescriptive because some achieved elements
might became ascribed, and ascribed become achieved, in some areas. For
example, sex and gender may be changed. Also, while we can improve our health
and physique, they may become uncontrollable.
One noteworthy point is that an incumbent (the person
enacting a particular role in an organisation – clerk, distribution manager,
housing officer, social worker, etc.) belongs to different diversity elements
and may face discrimination on the basis of one or more of them. For example,
an individual who is discriminated against, on the basis of gender (used interchangeably
with sex), may also face discrimination on the basis of race and ethnicity
(often treated together). The Paper is specifically concerned with
race, ethnicity and gender – primary life chances determiners.
The
Legal Parameter and The Impact of Legislation
Divisiveness in the application of policies and
procedure has necessitated appropriate legislation, which seeks to outmode
discrimination on the grounds of sex (the biological and physiological
differences, demarking male and female) and gender (the social and
stereotypical behaviours of particular sexes – masculine & feminine,
respectively), race and ethnicity. These seek to ensure that workers are
treated fairly, irrespective of their ‘distinct element of diversity’ (see e.g.
Liff, 1996).
The Equal Pay Act, 1970, the Equal Pay
(Amendment) Regulations, 1983, and the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (Equal
Opportunities Commission, 2000a), seek to address discrimination against
female. The Sex Discrimination Act (SDA) 1975, which was amended
and expanded in 1986, prohibits sex discrimination in employment, education and
advertising or in the provision of housing or goods (Equal Opportunities
Commission, 2001). Additional protection is afforded through the Sex
Discrimination (Gender Reassignment) Regulations 1999 (Equal Opportunities
Commission, 2000b).
“The Sex
Discrimination (Gender Reassignment) Regulations 1999 make it unlawful to
discriminate against a person for the purpose of employment or vocational
training on the ground that a person intends to undergo gender reassignment, or
is undergoing gender reassignment, or has at some time in the past undergone
gender reassignment” EOC (2000b).
In Britain
The Race Relations Act 1976 provides for the
protection of people from discrimination as a result of their race. It
specifies that a person discriminates against another if:
“(a) on racial
grounds he treats that other less favourably than he treats or would treat
other persons; or
“(b) he
applies to that other a requirement or condition which he applies or would
apply equally to persons not of the same racial group as that other but-
(i)
“which is such that the proportion of persons
of the same racial group as that other who can comply with it is considerably
smaller than the proportion of persons not of that racial group who can comply
with it; and
(ii)
“which he cannot show to be justifiable
irrespective of the colour, race, nationality or ethnic or national origins of
the person to whom it is applied; and
(iii)
“which is to the detriment of that other
because he cannot comply with it” (Home Office, 2000).
The Act is careful to clarify that:
“"racial
grounds" means any of the following grounds, namely colour, race,
nationality or ethnic or national origins; "racial group" means a
group of persons defined by reference to colour, race, nationality or ethnic or
national origins, and references to a person's racial group refer to any racial
group into which he falls” (Home Office, 2000).
With specific reference to employment, the Act stipulates
the following:
“It is
unlawful for a person, in the case of a person employed by him at an
establishment in Great
Britain , to discriminate against that
employee-
“(a) in the
terms of employment which he affords him; or
“(b) in the
way he affords him access to opportunities for promotion, transfer or training,
or to any other benefits, facilities or services, or by refusing or
deliberately omitting to afford him access to them; or
“(c) by
dismissing him, or subjecting him to any other detriment” (Home Office, 2000).
The Race Relations
(Amendment) Act 2000, strengthens the Race Relations Act 1976 and “makes
it unlawful to discriminate against anyone on grounds of race, colour,
nationality (including citizenship), or ethnic or national origin. The amended
Act also imposes positive duties on many public authorities to promote racial
equality” (CRE, 2001), specifically in relation to jobs, training, housing,
education, and the provision of goods, facilities and services.
Despite the fact that the above Acts assume direct
discrimination, they also protect workers against indirect discrimination –
which might manifest in equal treatment, which have a disproportionate effect
on one sex, or ethnic group. This application of the Acts protects individuals
from being “stripped of their gender and ethnicity for the purposes of
organisational decision making” (Liff, 1996, p.12).
Other Industrialised countries, such as USA and most of Europe ,
have made progress with the establishment of an effective system of promoting
equality and equity in employment for the sexes. Gee and Norton (1999, p.420)
observe that “federal equivalue legislation was passed in 1977, but it applied
only to 10 percent of Canadian employees working either for the federal government
or federally regulated industries”. In addition to this factor, only one third
of the workforce is covered by the legislation, with women concentrated in
lower-paying jobs, with average earnings
of 65% of their male counterparts (Gee and Norton, 1999) – segregation that
might not be dissimilar to United Kingdom.
Despite
the high proportion of women in the workplace, and irrespective of legislation, labour force segregation persists – most of
those to which women are ‘confined’ can be categorised as low paid jobs. For example, government survey (LSF survey – cited in EOC,
2000) indicates that women dominated particular occupations or vocation.
According to Halim (1993 – cited in Watson, 1995) in 1977 1% of employed women,
compared to 62% employed men were in skilled manual, professional and
managerial occupations. While 1,247 women, compared with 3,525men, work in
manufacturing, 4,187 women and 1,918 men work in public administration,
education and health. Even where women are in the majority, organisations tend
to be gender biased (Mills, 1998 – cited in Wicks and Bradshaw, 1999) in favour
of men. This observation leads us to
the fact that we generally view discrimination on the basis of the majority
against the minority group or groups. However, one factor, which is crucial to
the management of diversity, is that the minority groups might not relate to
the numerical proportion in which they exist. This means that even though, for
example, women are in the majority, numerically, they might, in practice, be in
the minority because they have no controlling effect on organisational
operation – men having dominated the power positions.
Britain’s Employment Tribunals appear to be effective
in providing deterrence to breaches of the regulation, evidenced by the number
of cases that have been successfully upheld and those that were brought before
them, in the first place – an exhibition of confidence in the system – and
successfully ‘disposed of’. 7% and 3% of the cases presented to employment
tribunals between 1990 and 2000 (inclusive) were for sex discrimination and
racial discrimination, respectively (Employment Tribunal Services, 2000). While
there has been an increase in the number of race discrimination cases brought
to employment tribunals, 2,746 in 1998/99, compared with 3,246 in 1999/2,000,
there has been a decrease in the number of sex discrimination cases – 6,2003
and 4,926 in 1998/1999 and 1999/2000, respectively. The number of sex
discrimination cases is, nevertheless, high. Employment tribunals disposed of
the 3,809 sex discrimination cases in 1999/2000, as follows: 1,504 (39%) ACAS
conciliated settlement; 1,348 (35%) withdrawn; and 233 (6%) successful
(Employment Tribunal Services, 2000). 913 (37%) of the race discrimination
cases that employment tribunals disposed of in 1999-2000 were resolved through
ACAS, while 809 (32%) and 107 (7%) were withdrawn and upheld, respectively. The
percentage of actual settlements does not present a good picture of the
effectiveness of the system but the fact that a large percentage was settled
through conciliation is consoling. However, there are question marks over those
cases that were dismissed before ‘hearing’. One important question, at this
stage, is whether the ‘protective mechanism’ has been effective elsewhere.
As was hinted, earlier, while Europe, United States and
Australia (Teicher and Spearitt, 1996) are making great strides on equal
opportunities legislation, countries such as Canada, it is purported, “lags by
about 20 years behind”, suggest Miller and Rowney (1999, p.308). This claim is
largely supported by Gee and Norton (1999, p.420), who observe that federal
equivalue legislation – creating parity for male and female workers - applied
only to 10 percent of Canadian government employees (cited earlier). However,
Jain and Verma (1996) present a different picture, with the claim that even
though only 6% of organisations in their research sample had included diversity
in their mission statements, 81% of them implemented diversity management
programmes. Could this be a case of an unrepresentative sample, or empirical
evidence suggesting that the private sector leaps ahead of the public sector?
While
some Brazilian companies have abandoned efforts or making slow progress towards
effective diversity management, others are making excellent progress,
numerically and in operational practices, with some attempt towards training
(Tereza and Fleury, 1999).
Shapiro (2000) reports that there was little evidence to
support TQM meetings or flexible working hours which was designed to cater for
the needs of people working at home or part-time (the majority of whom were
women). In addition, the writer states that there was no attempt made to
ensure, that TQM materials were relevant or appealing to men and women in a
majority of organisations in the sample. She also referred to the fact that no
attempt had been made to assess whether different groups of employees had
different training needs to enable them to participate in TQM process or
whether different processes or approaches required to enable and motivate
different groups of staff to become involved.
DIVERSITY
MANAGEMENT OR MISMANAGEMENT?
What is
Diversity Management?
One
important mark of distinction between equal opportunities or affirmative
action, on the one hand, and diversity management, on the other, is that with
the latter “business performance is emphasized as a reason for diversity rather
than the moral imperative” (Sinclair, 2000, p.238) that is associated with the
former. However, Kersten (2000, p.245) regards diversity management as “a new
version of a much older racial ideology that seeks to obscure real inequalities
in favour of a rhetoric of equality”.
As Kramar (1998, p.133) observes, diversity management goes
beyond the creation of equal employment opportunity, outcomes and legal
compliance.
“It is an
approach to management, which is explicitly concerned with the integration of
people management issues with business issues and the development of a
workplace culture which acknowledges the need to manage the similarities and
differences between contributors to the organisation”.
Diversity
management involves harnessing the energies, taking advantage of the
synergistic effect, of the differences that exist in the workforce, employing
appropriate steps to incorporate these, where necessary. “It is about having
management skills to allow their different perspectives and views to improve
the quality of your decisions” (Kandola & Fullerton, 1994, p.61).
Not only is the constitution of committees, task
forces and focus groups an integral aspect of effective diversity management
but so also is the value that is placed on the views of the different diversity
elements that are represented. It is, therefore, important that gatekeeping
(Moorhead and Griffin, 2001; Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert, 1995) be regarded as
a crucial activity in the success of any discourse. This facility encourages
the volunteering and evaluation of ideas, enriching the pool of available
information. Gatekeeping will also ensure that ‘resonation’ is promptly
discouraged, averting the likelihood of ‘withdrawal’ of potentially effective
contributors. The researcher would like to describe ‘resonation’ as the
situation whereby one member’s view is given little or no attention, or
completely dismissed, but is overwhelmingly received when another member
represents it. In most cases, no credit is given to the originator of the idea.
Diversity management also means that workers will be
encouraged to improve their performance, and, where appropriate, given
commendation for achievements. They will be consulted on the basis of their
expertise and differences in views, and their marketing intelligence (Kotler
and Armstrong, 2001) will be recognised and tapped.
Even the best efforts, in diversity management, as
typified by one of Wilson
What is often regarded as the ‘glass ceiling’- relates
to the point beyond which, consequent to discrimination, women are barred –
specifically relating to senior and boardroom management. The glass provides a
view of these positions, which are unattainable – because of inherent male
chauvinistic attitudes and perceptions. Seven years on from the results of the Institute of Management Survey
“As women
began to share positions of formal authority with their male counterparts, and
as men too were rewarded for adopting the more traditionally feminine roles and
responsibilities at work, people might begin explicitly to challenge
traditional stereotypes and discover aspects of themselves they had to deny in
order to comply with traditional gender/work roles”.
Shapiro (2000) regards a critical analysis of
recruitment and selection policy and procedure, and organisational culture, as
important prerequisites for the removal of the glass ceiling.
Could
the discriminatory problem that women face in the workplace have stemmed from,
among others, the gender bias of the very courses, which produce graduates in
management? This has been the conclusion of four separate research findings,
over the last decade (Ashendem, et al., 1995; Gallos; 1995; Sinclair, 1995;
Smith, 1998). According to Smith (1998, p.11), “a masculine bias remains in
management education, which disadvantages female and male learners in different
ways, and which may deter future managers from capitalising on gender diversity
in the workplace”. Mavin and Bryans
As
with other acts of discrimination, perpetrators find negative assertions as a
basis for denial of opportunity to women. One more
recent example, when humour has become a popular management tool, is the
suggestion that women use it more sparingly with men than they do with their
female counterparts. Empirical research by Smith, Harrington and Neck (2000)
has indicated that, given the appropriate environment – free of a male-oriented
power base – the ‘gender similarity effects’, did not exist.
Under-utilisation of Diverse
Workforce: Organisational Failings Or Disregard For Legislation?
We might consider two bases for an organisational
catastrophe, emanating from managers’ neglect of workforce diversity, the first
of which is the direct economic cost. The second basis relates to indirect
costs, associated with recruitment and selection, training of personnel,
operational ineffectiveness and lowering reputation in the ‘market’.
Gomez-Mejia, Belkin and Cardy (2001) have highlighted the case of Northern
Sigma, with a total of 22, 000 employees. Even though senior managers are
committed to the employment of women, there is a high staff turnover in its Chicago
Several empirical studies have revealed that organisational
functioning is substantially impaired when the differences that are inherent in
the diversity of its members are unrecognised and managed (see e.g. Church,
1995). Often organisations, in their discriminatory practices, severely
prejudice their interest. For example, Shapiro (2000) has given an example of
employees who work directly with the customer interface, such as women
receptionists, were never included in the TQM process although exhibiting the
most commitment and enthusiasm towards it. The writer observes that in those
organisations the more traditional technical workers, assumedly male, were less
enthusiastic – depriving them of the benefits of the system. The degree of
‘developmental retardation’ and under-utilisation of valuable human resource
that organisations engineer are a prime contributory factor to organisational
ineffectiveness.
As the following examples further illustrate, under-utilisation
of diverse workforce can have devastating effects on organisational survival,
in an increasingly competitive arena. The writer is careful to represent the
spectrum of organisations, because consequent to government reinvention,
traditional public sector enterprises are now subject to market dynamics. Some
organisations have made attempts to be more inclusive but have made blunders.
Stavraka (March 2000) observed that Burger King had pulled a commercial,
following complaints from the Council on American Islam Relations – because of
its offensive nature. The advertisement is said to have featured a character
using the name of Rasheed, which said the “Peace” and went on to praise the
company’s bacon cheddar cheese sandwich. It is not just the cost of the
advertisement and resultant loss of income that are of concern but so also is
the long-term damage that its actions can cause to customer relations. If the
Islamic workers felt that management was trustworthy and that their views would
have been valued, they would have alerted them of the potentially devastating
effect that their planned advertising campaign would have caused. The research
from which this paper was derived, regards managers’ consultation with workers
and their demonstration of respect and value for the ideas that they volunteer,
as important in organisational functioning. It therefore investigates the
extent to which these practices and attitudes are a feature of the case study
organisation.
Nike used an Islamic symbol on its footwear, creating fury
among Muslims, worldwide. The penalty was a costly product recall, loss of
sales and disquiet among those offended. It also tried to enhance its
advertising campaign, during the Sydney
Liz Claiborne incorporated a Quranic verse on the back
pocket of its DKNY jeans. This product had to be recalled, following the outcry
of the Council on American Islamic Relations. Cost of recall and loss of sales
were the visible results, in addition to its loss of reputation in the market.
Coca-Cola has been found guilty of racial discrimination
against current and former employees and is ordered, by a US District Judge, to
pay compensation amounting to $192.5 million (Pine, 2001). The necessary and
positive outcome of this landmark case is that the company had to agree to the
establishment of an independent taskforce, headed by Alexis Herman, former US
Labour Secretary, to monitor its employment practices and link diversity to
executive compensation – an initiative that the company should have taken
voluntarily.
The following figure (1) illustrates some of the problems
that organisations face when they fail to effectively utilise their diverse
workforce. For example, in the case of Nike, Islamic workers were able to warn
the company of the infringement that it had caused and of the infuriation that
its persistence would have generated among the Islamic Community worldwide –
but they may not have thought that in was ‘their place’ to do so. Their
intervention would have averted the impending catastrophe – saving the company
millions of pounds.
Figure 1: Examples of Cultural Infringements
|
Organisation
|
Issue
|
Consequence/Cost
|
|
Nike
|
Advertisement
depicting violence against women – during the Sydney Olympics.
|
NBC pulled
advertisement following first showing. Loss of sales; Cost of intended
campaign (Husain, A., Sept. 19, 2000),
|
|
Liz Claiborne
Incorporated
|
Inclusion of Quranic
verse on the back pocket of its DKNY Jeans
|
Costly product
recall, following outcry from Council on American Islamic Relations
(Stavraka, Aug. 16, 2000).
|
|
Nike
|
Use of Islamic symbol
on it footwear (trainers).
|
Costly product recall
and loss of patronage from Islamic Community Worldwide.
|
|
Burger King
|
The advertisement is
said to have featured a character using the name of Rasheed, which said the
“Peace” and went on to praise the company’s bacon cheddar sandwich.
|
Burger King pulled a
commercial, following complaints from the Council on American Islam Relations
– because of its offensive nature. The cost is loss of reputation through
adverse publicity.
|
|
Coca-Cola
|
Persistent Racial
Discrimination (Pine, 2001).
|
Immediate cost:
$192.5 million to victims; Legal costs; Cost of mandatory task force.
|
Since many organisations are privileged to have a diverse
workforce, it is to their detriment if they ineffectively utilise their
knowledge – notably marketing intelligence (Kotler and Armstrong, 2001) – and
expertise. Management’s ‘inclusive policy’ will dictate that diversity is
mandatory for committees – one issue that the empirical analysis addresses -
and focus groups’ constitution.
Improving Organisational
Effectiveness Through Workforce Diversity: Some Success Stories
Starting from the premise that ‘value’ is enhanced by
admiration, adoration and protection, we might establish the hypothesis that
whatever is perceived as valuable in workplaces will be so regarded and
treated. We might, therefore, speculate and attempt to establish,
theoretically, that organisational assets that are valued are tapped and
nurtured to increase its value. This ‘added value’ will transform the
organisation products and services, increasing market standing. Organisations
that support this notion will not need to be coerced to exercise ‘notional’
regard for workplace diversity – notably gender, race and ethnicity. There
should be no need, therefore, for legislation to assure that these elements of
workforce diversity are not treated as though they were unwelcome burdens to
the organisation. Organisations are obliged to operate within the constraint of
existing legislation, which seeks to provide a high degree of deterrence to
disregard for ‘human dignity’.
Gee and Norton (1999, p.417) propose that “the ability to
understand and manage issues and challenges related to diversity is critical
for business success and for positive employee relations”. Not only is the management of workforce diversity crucial
to organisational effectiveness but it is also of inestimable value to a
country’s economy (Human, 1996).
Some of the examples in Figure 1 are an illustration that
several organisations are unaware of the tremendous ‘marketing intelligence’
that diversity affords. If a company needs to find out information on various
markets to perfect its strategy, it has undeniable access to this information,
excepting that, constrained by its obsession to ‘discriminate’, it might fail
to recognise the business benefits of effectively utilising the appropriate
elements of diversity. Effective ‘exploitation’ of diversity can spare an
organisation a great deal of embarrassment and even avert impending
catastrophe. In the case of Nike, the appropriate element of its
diverse workforce might have warned it, prior to the launch of one of its
products - on which it had inappropriately represented the Islamic Religion -
that it would have infuriated the worldwide Islamic Community. This important
issue not having been addressed, prior to product launch, costs the company
millions of pounds in its product recall – having also lost its reputation in
the market – recovery being a slow process. One pertinent question is whether
decision-makers would have accepted workers’ advice and criticism – one of the
issues that this report addresses, in analysing Pike International.
Despite
years of academic, consultant and practitioner tinkering, diversity management
is still thought to be in its infancy (see e.g. Spearitt, 1996). The search
continues for a realistic perspective (Wilson
On the other hand, Jones and Shepherd’s (2000) study
indicates that there are power issues related to globalisation – incorporating
the appropriateness of imposing special models of diversity on local culture,
with a quite different cultural context for dealing with difference. Maxwell,
McDougall and Blair (2000) echo this point, iterating that the movement to
improve workforce diversity mirrors the trend towards a more diverse customer
base.
In addition, the authors address the issue of ‘managing
diversity’ where the discourse is based on strategic imperatives of large, white
male-orientated organisations. Here there is a tension, the writers assert,
that produces power brokers who are trying to interpret disempowerment in order
to overcome it while operating from a place of power.
According to Robert Loo (1999) the multi-cultural makeup of
most countries and the expansion of globalisation provides a basis for
international organisations with a diverse workforce to have managers and staff
but, in particular, professionals in training in educational institutions need
to be sensitised to cross cultural differences and the need to value both
cultural and workplace diversity.
According to Scharff (2000) improvements in health
inequalities will not be achieved without a more diverse and well-trained
workforce. The writer makes reference to the centres for disease control in the
USA
Shapiro (2000) in a review paper makes reference to
research undertaken across 14 organisations in eight European Union Members
States. The research findings indicate that through employee involvement,
promoting team structures and encouraging staff to use their experience and
creativity to contribute to organisational improvements, the differences that
exist between staff in areas of functional specialism, hierarchical,
educational background and gender, can be of tremendous value to the
organisation. Despite increased employee exposure to diversity, the author
elaborates, some employees have been slow to develop their skills and
capabilities to manage diversity in a positive way, thereby supporting the
objectives of employee involvement programmes. There are a number of well-known
examples, most of which are ‘headline grabbing’. However, Figure 2 presents a
few less known ones.
Figure 2: Exploiting Diversity – Some Little-known Examples
|
Organisation
|
Initiative
|
|
Wall Street
Journal
|
Recently
appointed Joan Lipman to its to the position of Managing Editor of its
popular weekend journal. She is the highest-ranking editor in the history of
the newspaper (Diversity Incorporated, 2001 a).
|
|
Lockheed
Martin Aeronautics Company
|
Appointed a
black woman – Dorie Tuggle – Senior Manager of its Diversity and Equal
Employment Opportunities (EEO) Programmes, with responsibility for EEO and
Urban Community affairs (Diversity Incorporated, 2001 a).
|
|
Clairol
|
Advertising
Campaign, portraying women of varying cultures, ages and styles - suggesting
that beauty comes in all colours, body shapes and ages (Wallace, L. March 9,
2001).
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Quaker Oats;
IBM;
Ciba-Geigy; Pacific Telesis
|
Creation of
‘Mommy Tracks’, whereby women are given extended leave, with benefits, for up
to three years, with the guarantee of a comparable position to the one they
vacated, on their return to work. The women are usually on call for part-time
work during this period (Gomez-Mejia, Balkin & Cardy, 2001).
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Mercedes
Benz
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Uses black
and white icons of Ella Fitzgerald and Duke Ellington, with the words “What
Endures” (Bean, L., March 10, 2000)
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Levi Strauss
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Instituted a
policy prohibiting workers, who ignore diversity and empowerment issues, from
getting pay increases (Egge, 1999).
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According to Scheinholtz (2000), reporting on the result of
an international survey of approximately 800 higher education students, nearly
two-thirds of college students believe it is important to work for an
organization that values diversity. 58% of respondents indicate that they
thought the, corporate world was doing enough to attract and retain a diverse
workforce, while 42% said they weren’t doing enough. On the other hand, 64%
said it was important to them to work for a diverse organisation while 36% said
it was not important.
Other developments, according to Starvaka (April, 2000),
include the provision of flexible working arrangements, which appealed to more
women. In these instances 655 of New
York
Jose Gomenz corporate director of Wal-Mart , America
Harung and Harung (1995) attest that the creation of a
strong team or organisation lies in its psychophysiology chemistry, which should
be of such that it provides a balanced mixture of different body-mind types.
Korac-Kakabadse and Kouzmin (1999, p.307) attempt to correct the misconception
about globalisation – not homogeneity or a common culture but a recognition and
legitimisation of differences (Pringle, 1994 – cited in Korac-Kakabadse and
Kouzmin, 1999). They aptly communicate the thought that the implicit “culture
and subcultures require an interpretivist framework allowing for the
conceptualisation” of heterogeneity and multiculturalism.
Recent research report has pointed to the increased
effectiveness resulting from dedicated diversity management. The Society For
Human Resource Management (SHRM), cited in Choi, 2001) analysed responses from
121 human resource professionals from the US
Whatever the organisation’s motive for embracing diversity
management, Shapiro (2000, p. 307), supported by a number of writers including
Rennie (1993 and Storey, 1995 – cited in Shapiro, 2000), declares that it is
“wrong – legally, ethically and in terms of being a waste of human resources –
to discriminate against groups of employees, such as women, ethnic minorities
and the disabled”.
THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
The Setting
Pike International, the pseudonym for the case study
organisation, is a company limited by guarantee, with share value, having
several overseas bases. Its current size is consequent to consistent internal
and external growth strategy. It has a wide product base and technology
represents both a source of revenue and an effective platform for the delivery
of its goods and services. Its technological infrastructure facilitates
advanced Material Requirement Planning (see e.g. Hillier, Hillier and Liberman,
2000; Boddy and Paton, 1998) – not precluding Just-In-Time, where practicable.
Recognising the need to keep up with operational developments, it meets this
challenge with micro and macro organisational change efforts, much of which
have been ‘installed’ without cultural infusion, institutionalisation
(Crawford, 1994), therefore, not having been achieved.
The company employs just over 2,000 workers, with a
masculine to feminine gender mix ratio of 3:1, minority ethnic groups
constituting 20% - mainly Blacks - of the total workforce. These proportions of
gender and ethnicity are unrepresentative of the regions in which Pike
International operates and which its client base supersedes - creating problems
with relationship management (see e.g. Brassington and Pettitt, 2000), which
might bear similarity with supplier management (Kim and Michell, 1999). Lee and
Chun (2000, p.127) observe that “to facilitate effective cross-cultural
interactions, multicultural training helps individuals in an organisation
acquire both the knowledge and tools needed to reduce misunderstandings and
inappropriate behaviour”.
The organisation is structured hierarchically along
functional lines, with overseas bases as agencies – rather than being
separately incorporated. The structure, nevertheless, facilitates the
establishment of teams, leaders having a noticeable degree of power. The
organisational structure provides a great deal of opportunity for effective
career management. Although positions might enjoy similar horizontal
relationship, they may be graded differently – some attracting additional increments.
The rationale is that scientific job analysis reveals ergonomic and perceptual
(Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert, 1995) differences in role execution. Even then,
roles on similar levels enjoy different degrees of prestige and, therefore,
horizontal movement, though not attracting additional remuneration, improves
the incumbents’ social standing and perceived value within the organisation.
The organisation recognises the need for workers to have
additional social skills to function effectively in the agencies abroad and
work with international clients and customers, from the domestic bases. These
positions, therefore, attract special provisions, status and remuneration.
Although departmental headship is regarded as an important point in an individual’s
career progression, there are several attractive positions below that level.
Departments, themselves, have different budgetary allocations and are
positioned to attract different amounts of revenue, which determines their
status on the informal hierarchy. There is also a difference between the
grading and status of the operator, clerical and administrative, and
professional levels.
Teams are usually small, with 5-12 workers, compared with
departments, which may exceed 50. They are operationally flexible, numerically
and functionally (see e.g. Atkinson,
1984; Buchanan and McCalman, 1993; Dyer, 1998; Goodenham and Nordhaug, 1997;
Kathuria, 1998; Parker and Jackson, 1993; Pettinger, 1998; Salmon, 1996;
Saundry, 1998; Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert, 1995; Tregaskis, 1997; Wong, 1993),
facilitating worker deployment between them, and simultaneous membership of
different teams. While departmental meetings are formally scheduled at regular
intervals, team meetings are held when necessary, with just one week’s notice,
excepting in an emergency, when members are immediately ‘rounded up’ from
different locations – to the most convenient venue. To create even greater
flexibility, video conferencing facility is being established on all domestic
sites.
Methodology
The empirical study was conducted over a two-year period,
culminating in the questionnaire administration. Informants were assured of
their unanimity and the organisation promised that it would not be named nor
any inferences made in this report that would identify it. While the inclusion
of particular excerpts and verbatim would have added richness to the dialogue
presented and substantiate ‘grounding’, much of these have had to be withheld
or modified, an important issue that other researchers have had to address,
when dealing with similarly sensitive issues (Church, 1995) – in the interest
of confidentiality and continuing facilitation of ethnographic research.
The researcher’s continued involvement in organisational
activities was an important way of demonstrating concern and commitment,
workers and management learning to confide in him. His acceptance at different
organisational levels, however, did not affect his objectivity or compromise
his researcher role. His position of trust gained him access to valuable but
sensitive information, at all levels - from the janitorial staff to the
boardroom.
150 questionnaires were originally administered,
representing a 7.5% sample. 105 questionnaires were returned – a rate of 70%,
reducing the sample to 5.25%. A stratified random sample (Clark-Carter, 1997)
was attempted, to assure proportionate race and gender representation. It was,
however, difficult to achieve a ‘perfect sample’, in that regard, because of
the interrelationship between race/ethnicity and gender – there being minority
ethnic male and female as well as White male and female. However, it was
possible to achieve a sample constituent of 66.7% Whites, compared with 33.3%
minority ethnic groups – 27.6% being Blacks (Table 1).
The questionnaire consists of 33 closed ended items, some providing the
‘none of the above’, ‘none’ and ‘other’ categories – reducing their likelihood
of becoming ‘forced choice. The final questionnaire design was facilitated by
insights gained from the pilot run. The management of Pike International, the
case study organisation, provided the mechanism whereby the researcher made the
stratified random selection from the different groups. Questionnaires were
distributed to the selected individuals and these returned, anonymously, to the
specified ‘point’, within the 48-hour deadline that they were given to complete
and return them. The quantitative data analysis was achieved through the use of
SPSS (see e.g. Brace, Kemp and Snelgar, 2000) with the purpose of establishing
the relationship between specific constants and associated variables. It
attempts, therefore, to establish whether the null hypothesis (Clark-Carter,
1997; Kanji, 1994) can be accepted – i.e.
H0 (1): There is no significant
difference between the treatment and perception of the sexes.
H0 (2): Races and ethnic groups are
treated similarly and have similar perceptions about organisational
functioning.
The results of analysis were chi-squared, with
the level of significance taken at p < 0.05. Approximately 50 tables were
generated – the researcher including only some, to reduce the bulk and cost of
subsequent journal publication.
The foci of the analysis were to:
- Ascertain the effectiveness of human resource
utilisation, based on the degree to which the sexes, races and ethnic
groups are ‘represented’.
- To test the reality, and workers’ perception, by
sex, race and ethnicity, of the internal environment.
Questionnaire responses were cross-tabulated to
facilitate a comparative analysis of the information. For example, question 14
asks: “Of how many committees or task forces have you been a member?” The
responses to this question were cross-tabulated with those of question 2
enquiring of respondents’ sex. The product is Table 4, showing the number and
percentage of respondents who were members of these groups, at some stage - 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more, task forces or committees. This process was repeated for
race, and ethnicity (Table 5).
The sample represents all the age ranges, closely matching
the population, the majority – 29% - between 40 and 46, followed by the 26-32
age-range at 20% (Table 2). 71.4% of the respondents were male and 28.6% female
(Table 3).
THE
FINDINGS
Effective Utilisation of Human Resources
Membership of committees and taskforces
is just one of the ways through which managers can assemble its workforce’s
diverse skills, knowledge and expertise – positioned for maximum exploitation.
These are not ‘just for the show’ but are crucial instruments of organisational
functioning (Stoner, Freeman and Gilbert, 1995; Boddy and Paton, 1998; Certo,
2000; Robbins, 2001). At Pike International, although workers usually volunteer
to become members, managers make the ultimate decisions regarding the
individuals who are co-opted. Occasionally there is an open invitation for
membership but often announcements are made of individual inclusion, without
wider consultation. Whenever a vacancy is created, through expiration of term,
departure – through incapacitation or disillusionment – heads of department usually
find a replacement through consultation with the ‘chosen few’. The first
section of this analysis enquires into historical and current membership of
these groups.
Table
4 presents the analysis of committee and task force membership by sex, over the
period that respondents have been in the organisation. Male constitute just
over 70% of respondents, who were members of only one of these groups, less
than 30% being female. It indicates that almost 80% of male respondents were at
some time members of at least one committee or task force, with less than 60%
being female. More than 90% of those who belonged to 4 task forces or
committees were male and less than 10% female. Some male but no female were
ever member of 5 or more of these groups. Chi-square test shows no significant
difference in this pattern – based on sex - a probability greater than 0.05,
but significantly different in relation to ethnicity (Table 5).
c2 =
8.529, df = 5, p < 0.112
Chi-square test confirms that there is no significant difference between
current memberships based on sex (Table 6). However, 25.3% of male, compared
with 53% female are not currently member of any task force or committee, while
22.7% male and 16.7% female are members of only one task force each. Of the
respondents who belong to three and four committees and task forces, 88.2% and
over 85%, respectively, are male, compared with 11.8% and 14.3% female. 6.7%
male but no female respondents are members of 5 or more committees and task
forces.
Even though there is no significant difference between male and female’s
previous and current membership of committees or task forces there is a
significant difference in membership based on race and ethnicity. As Table 5
illustrates, of the respondents who have been members of 2 committees and
taskforces, 81.3% were White. Whites also represent 86.4%, 80.9%, and 77.8% of
respondents who were members of 3, 4 and 5 committees and task forces,
respectively. Those who were never a member of any of these types of group are
21.4% Whites, 48.3% Blacks and 50% Chinese.
Of the respondents who are currently members of task forces and
committees, 17.1% Whites, 75% Asians, 20.7% Blacks and 50% Chinese and other
minority ethnic groups are members of only one. Only whites (100%) are currently
members of 4 and more of these groups, who also constitute 89.5% of those who
are members of 2 groups. Statistically significant, this membership pattern has
a chi-square representation of: χ2 = 38.240, df = 15, p < 0.001.
(χ2 = 31.582, df =
15, p < 0.007 (Table 5)
χ2 = 10.545, df = 5, p < 0.061
Membership of committees and task forces
is just one step towards facilitating staff’s contribution to organisational
functioning. However, this effort is futile if members do not accept the views
of their colleagues. There is a significant difference between the committees’
acceptance of members’ views, based on their race and ethnicity (Table 7).
While 10% of Whites always had their views accepted at committee and task force
meetings, no Asians or Blacks always had their views accepted at these types of
meetings. While no White ever had his or her views rejected at committee and
task force meetings, those of 41.2% Blacks were rejected. Only Whites very
often had their views accepted. Of the respondents whose views committee
members very often accept at meetings, over 90% are Whites. Male is also the
more represented group of respondents, whose views their members always
(87.5%), very often (93.3%) often (85.7%), and seldom (59.1%) accept at these
meetings. Also, only 6.5% male, compared with 16.7% female never had their
views accepted. Chi-square test indicates that there is a significant
difference between these frequencies (Table 8).
Might the pattern of acceptance of views that exists at committee level
be any different from that of departmental meetings? On the basis of sex, there
is a higher proposition of male than female, whose views were accepted at these
types of meetings. Of those whose views were always, very often, often and
seldom accepted, the percentages of sample that were male are 100%, 87.5%,
88.2%, and 54.8%, respectively (Table 9). This means that 5.3% of the male and
16.7% female respondents never had their views accepted at departmental
meetings. From these percentages, we deduce that female are three times more
likely to have their views rejected at departmental meetings than their male
counterparts. These differences, as Table 9 indicates, are statistically
significant.
Table
7
c2
= 55.588, df = 12, p < 0.000
c2
= 9.638, df = 4, p < 0.047
c2
= 17.259, df = 4, p < 0.002
White is the most favoured group at departmental
meetings – with 21.4% of its members very often, and 47.1% often having their
views accepted at departmental meetings. White is the only ethnic group that
contains a percentage of respondents (5.7%) who always had their views accepted
at these meetings. 2.9% White, compared with 24.1% Black respondents never had
their views accepted at departmental meetings. 97.1% of respondents who often
had their views accepted at these types of meetings, were White. Chi-square
test indicates that there is a significant difference in to way in which
members’ views were accepted at departmental meetings, based on ethnicity (c2
= 49.476, df = 12, p< 0.000).
One would have thought that because teams are usually small they would
have had a higher degree of cohesiveness (Moorehead and Griffin , 2001) than departments that are
larger, creating the likelihood that their members accept others’ views.
Another factor in support of this expectation is that members work
collaboratively, necessitating a high degree of interpersonal skills. This
constituent should have furnished them with a more ‘inclusive’ attitude.
However, analysis indicates that this explanation has not been met. Instead,
there is a great disparity in the degree to which members – notably the team
leaders – accept the views of their counterparts, with division along the lines
of sex, race and ethnicity.
There is a
significant difference between the degree to which members’ views were
accepted, at team meetings, on the basis of their sex (c2
= 29.896, df=4, p < 0 000), with all those who always had their views
accepted at team meetings being male (100%). More than 90% male and less than
7% female very often had their views accepted at team meetings. Male also
represents 90% of those who often had their views accepted, compared with only
10% female. Those who seldom and never had their views accepted are represented
as 40.5% and 62.5% male and 59.5% and 37.5% female, respectively.
There is also a significant difference between the
extent to which the views of members of different ethnic group are accepted,
with Whites fearing better than Blacks (the 2nd major ethnic group).
Blacks were three times more likely to have their views rejected at team
meetings than their White counterparts, who field 100% of the members who
always had their views accepted and over 90% and almost 100% of those who very
often and often had their views accepted. The significant difference between
the rate of view acceptance, based on ethnicity, is supported statistically: c2
=60.748, df=12, p < 0.000.
As the quantitative analysis indicates, male and Whites have a greater
chance of having the views that they present at any meeting accepted than any
other group. Women, but more so members of minority ethnic groups are very
conscious of this situation, some electing to be quiet in meetings because
their views are not accorded the same degree of respect as those of other
groups are. This can be illustrated by the melancholy tone of one informant, as
he reluctantly pulls to ‘full view’ the agenda, for a meeting that he had no
desire to attend but which was mandatory, that was sandwiched between a set of
‘working files’:
“Why do I need to
go?” he questioned.
“If
not because I am contractually bound to attend, I would not be ‘making it’!
There is no point in turning up just to be recorded as being present. Why don’t
they have the meetings privately, then tell us what they decide. In fact, I
think the meetings are just for the show. They come to the meeting, after
having previously taken a stance and knowing what each other will be saying. On
all issues there are previous agreements. They are experts at dramatic arts.
It’s like a movie script that has been rehearsed several times before the
public performance.
“But
I guess I’ll just have to go!”
Another respondent, in an unofficial response to the query, dubbed a
‘citation’, regarding non-attendance at a recent meeting, declares:
“I
thought they would be relieved that I was absent. It is a good thing to have
only part of the group involved in discussions and taking all the decisions. I
am one of the ‘complete observers’ – be there but do not interrupt the
proceedings!
“What
is most irritating is when, occasionally, you think you have got it! That
brilliant idea! Thinking, they will have to listen this time! You present that
brilliant idea! Your best ever! But it ‘falls to the floor!’ No one takes any
notice – but sometimes, the most disappointing rejection! No consideration
given to an idea that guarantees progress!
“But what is really infuriating! What really kills me –
makes me want to walk out in protest! Is that my silly, stupid idea is recycled
by a White, usually a woman, and this is welcome with open arms! Its as though
they had never heard it before! Its as though I had not said it!
“So often people sit beside you to get your ideas, to ‘rock
your brain’, just to bring them out to management to get the praise!
“When
we receive an occasional visit from higher management at one of our meetings,
they say stupid things but gain the recognition. They sometimes ask you what
you think before the meeting then get it all out before you have a chance to do
so.
“If you try to say something, you are asked to wait but
they can interrupt. Sometimes I get interrupted before I finish my statement –
they know precisely what I was going to say. I am not given a chance. Now, I
conclude that it does not make sense trying. I will be the ‘complete observer’
that they want me to be!”
After glancing, through the text of an old ‘record of meeting’ contained
in a previously unopened e-mail, Valerie, smiling broadly, filed it away in a
‘Lever Arch File’. Normal conversation followed this unscheduled interruption.
However, approximately ten minutes later, there was lull in the discussion –
her side of the discussion. The silence was broken moments later, with the
thought:
“I
know I might be thinking aloud or retrogressing. However, I cannot help
thinking that I could have been made to feel more welcome at these meetings. I
am not part of the dominant forces and, therefore, have no control over the
situation.
“The least that I would expect is that they would listen to me. Even when
I say something positive, my name does not appear on the ‘record’. I am made to
feel stupid – but many organisations take the stupid ideas that workers have
and make millions. Look at Microsoft! Look at most other corporate giants! They
listen to people! They value all contributions!
“We are different, and it is that difference that makes it necessary for
us to meet and trade ideas but this is not what is happening! This is the
reason that we are literally stagnated! We are in the mire! And management is a
sad story! They do not have a ‘clue’! – Completely ‘clueless’!”
In order to secure a wide range of view, to facilitate effective
decision-making (Dessler, 2001), managers usually consult their subordinates –
though the extent to which they do this depends on their leadership style and
the organisational structure that they implement. It is logical, therefore, to
assume that the views that they solicit are representative of their diverse
workforce. Analysis of the degree to which managers solicit the views of
members of their departments, shows gender disparity. On analysis, managers
consulted a significantly greater number of male than female. Of those whom
managers most frequently consult, more than 95% are male and less than 5%
female. As Table 10 indicates, 81% males are seldom consulted compared with
less than 20% female. With 40.9% male and 82.1% female, who are never
consulted, this significant difference between the sexes means that managers
are twice as likely to consult male than female workers.
c2
= 14.559, df = 2, p < 0.001.
Because consultation on gender basis is weighed in favour of males, we
might assume that there could not be a significant difference between the
degree with which managers consult the particular ethnic groups. Surprisingly,
the practice is very much the same, as with sex, White being the most favoured
group. As Table 11 indicates, of the 105 respondents, managers have only ever
consulted Whites, with only 27.9%, compared with 100% of other ethnic groups,
whom they have never consulted. The figures are represented as: c2
= 44.750, df=6, p < 0.000.
We could cautiously attribute the reasons for this
disparity to the size of departments and, therefore, the great number of people
with whom managers need to contend (Table 11). Whites being the most
represented ethnic group in Pike International could mean that they are most
likely to be found or intercepted than their other ethnic counterparts.
However, this is unlikely to be a satisfactory explanation to a total neglect
of other groups, for the purpose of consultation. While managers might be given
the benefit of the doubt, for overlooking Black and other minority ethnic
groups, during consultation, it will not be by sheer coincidence that they also
neglect one sex in favour of the other (Table 10).
Table 11
c2
= 44.750, df=6, p < 0.000
Again, because of the small number of people in each team and the fact
that the superior-subordinate relationship is less formal than that which
exists in departments, one expects that team leaders will be less biased in
their consultation. However, against this expectation and ‘strikingly similar’
to the behaviour of departmental managers, team leaders’ consultation favours
White, to a great extent more than Black ethnic group. Of respondents whom team
leaders consult very often, and often, Whites feature at 100% - no other group
falling in these categories. Whites and Blacks were
the only groups who were often consulted, 87.5% and 12.5%, respectively. 22.5%
Whites, 10% Asians and 5% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups, have received
consultation from team leaders. Chi-square test shows a significant difference
between team leaders’ consultation of the different ethnic groups (c2 = 42.438, df = 9,
p < 0.000).
No female, compared with 40% of the male respondents said that their team
leaders very often and often consulted them. They have never consulted 87%
female, compared with 36.4% male, whom they never consulted. These percentages
mean that team leaders are twice more likely to consult male than female – a
significant difference between them (Table 12).
c2
= 18.182, df = 3, p < 0.000.
Corporate managers in Pike International
rarely consult workers, presumably because of their busy schedule. However,
when they do so very often, only 1.9% of the times that they consult workers,
women are favoured at 3.3% compared with their male counterparts at 1.4%.
However, females are less popular in the two frequencies of consultation, often
and seldom, with males scoring just over 21% and 31%, respectively, compared
with 3.3% and 6.7% for female. Table 13 presents these findings, establishing
that corporate managers are twice more likely to consult male than their female
colleagues. Chi-square test indicates a significant difference: c2 = 16.232,
df = 3, p < 0.001.
c2 = 16.232, df = 3, p < 0.001
Corporate managers consult 2.9% Whites
very often, and 24.3% of them often but 0% Black and other minority ethnic
groups, in both frequencies. However, they seldom consult 3.4% of Black and
34.3% White respondents. While corporate managers have never consulted Indian,
Chinese and other minority ethnic groups, they have consulted 34% Blacks and
61.4% White respondents. The chi-square result is: c2 = 32.181,
df = 9, p < 0.000 (see Table 14).
c2 = 32.181, df = 9, p < 0.000
One would have expected that because some workers seldom and never had
their views accepted at committees and task forces, team and departmental
meetings, and were hardly ever consulted by team leaders and managers, they
would be reluctant to volunteer their views, on a one-to-one basis, to these
incumbents. To the contrary they did so to a very great extent at Pike
International.
While only 2% of Whites in the sample very often volunteered their views
to team leaders, 29% Asians and 29.6% Blacks did so very often. 60% Whites, 50%
Asians and 55.6% Blacks, and 100% Chinese and other ethnic minority groups
volunteer advice to team leaders often, while 36% Whites and 11.1% Blacks
seldom did so. Chi-square analysis confirms that these percentages are
significant at: c2
= 24.026, df = 9, p < 0.004. A slightly greater percentage of male
than female, 98.3% and 92% respectively, volunteer advice to team leaders,
showing no significant difference between them (c2 = 2.691,
df = 3, p < 0.442). Team leaders reject 60% of the views that female members
offer, compared with only 28.1% of those of their male counterparts. Team
leaders always accept the volunteered information of 19.3% male but 0% female.
8.8% male and 0% female very often, with 24.6% and 8% male and female
respectively, often had team leaders accepting their views (Table 15).
c2 = 15.357, df = 4, p < 0.004
There is also a significant difference between the racial and ethnic
groups whose information team leaders had accepted - weighing in favour of Whites. 65.35% Whites
and 0% minority ethnic groups suggest that team leaders always accept their
advice when they volunteer it. They seldom accept the views of 22.4% White,
25.9% Black and 50% of Chinese and other minority ethnic groups. Statistics
indicate that there is a significant difference between the rate with which
team leaders accept the views of racial and minority ethnic groups: c2
= 45.233, df = 12, p < 0.000.
Despite the team leaders’
non-acceptance of most of the views that members volunteer to them, they often
provide information to heads of departments. White is the only racial group
that very often-volunteer information to heads of department (1.6%). However,
just over 57% of them, 75% of Asians, 70.4% of Blacks, and 50% Chinese and
other minority ethnic groups often volunteer information to them. Statistics
indicate that these differences, on the basis of ethnicity, are significant
(Table 16).
Taken by sex, there is no significant difference in the frequency with
which workers volunteer information to heads of departments. Only a small
percentage of female (3.6%) and 0% male never volunteer information to them.
While 62% of the male and 67.7% of female respondents often do, 30.3% of the
former and 32% of the latter seldom volunteer information to their managers.
There is, therefore, no significant difference between the extent to which the
two groups volunteer information at this organisational level (c2
= 3.038, df = 4, p < 0.551).
c2 = 26.934, df = 12, p < 0.008
With most respondents
volunteering information to heads of department, it will be interesting to know
the degree to which they welcome the information and whether their acceptance
is biased towards a particular sex, race and ethnic group. Analysis indicates
that there is a significant difference between the degree to which heads of
department accept comments from male and female workers, the former being more
favoured. While only 19% of male suggest that their heads of department never
accept their advice, 64.3% of the female said that they never do so. These
managers always accept the advice of 27% male and 3.6% female. No female
respondents indicate that their managers very often accept their advice but
9.5% of the male say that they do. However, 7.1% female and 27% male say that
their heads of department often accept their suggestions. Chi-square test
indicates a significant difference in the frequency with which managers accept
suggestions from the two groups (c2
= 24.284, df = 4, p < 0.000).
Taken on the bases of race and ethnicity, departmental
managers are overwhelmingly in favour of Whites, in their acceptance of the
information that workers volunteer. Only white respondents indicate that their
managers always, very often and often accept their views. This means that
members of minority ethnic groups fall in the other two categories, seldom and
never, the bulk being in the latter. Managers seldom accept the views of 25%
Asians, just over 23% Blacks and 50% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups.
This means that they never accept the advice that 75%, almost 77% and 50% of
these groups, respectively. Statistical analysis indicates that these
differences are significant (Table 17).
c2
= 51.542, df =12, p< 0.000
Based on the assumption that senior
managers do not have all the answers, specifically those related to diversity
issues, they sometimes seek advice from people at different organisational
levels. The concern of this investigation is to establish which categories of
the diverse workforce, if any, they most favour in their search for
information, with which to formulate important policy and strategy.
Analysis indicates that
there is a significant difference between the rate at which senior managers
consult racial and ethnic groups, on diversity matters. Black and White are the
only groups that senior managers have consulted, with 3.4% of the former and 0%
of the latter suggesting that senior managers very often consult them. While
these managers very often consult 1.4% Whites and 0% Blacks, they seldom
consult 22.9% of the former and 3.4% of the latter. The difference between the
rates at which senior managers consult particular racial groups is significant
at: c2 = 45.431, df = 12, p < 0.000.
Senior managers consult a total of 13.3%
female respondents, compared with 54.1% of their male counterparts. Therefore,
they have never consult almost twice as many females (86.7%) as males (45.9%).
The frequency with which they consult the two groups is also different. While
they very often consult 3.3% female and 1.4% male, they often consult 21.6%
male and just 3.3% female. In addition, they also seldom consult 31.1% male and
6.7% female. Chi-square test indicates a significant difference in the pattern
with which corporate managers consult the sexes (c2 = 16.232, df = 3, p < .001).
Analysis, has, so far, focused on respondents’ volunteering of
suggestions in group and individual contexts, and the degree to which team
leaders and managers accept them, based on sex, race and ethnicity. The
research now assesses the degree to which workers perceive that they possess
information crucial to organisational survival. When asked “to what extent do
you think that you have access to important information from outside your
organisation that would improve its chances of success?”, an overwhelming 80% female,
compared with just under 25% male suggest that they do so to a great extent.
Just over 50% male and 16.7% female agree that they possess this information –
interpreted as marketing intelligence - to a fair extent. Chi-square test
reveals a significant difference between the responses of the two groups (Table
18).
c2 =18.114, df = 3. p < 0.000
27.1% Whites, 100% Asians, 86.2% Blacks and
100% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups, suggest that, to a great extent,
they possess marketing intelligence. 55.7% Whites, 0% Asians, 13.8% Blacks and
0% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups suggest that, to a great extent,
they possess marketing intelligence. Only 8.6% White and 0% of other ethnic
groups thought that they did not possess marketing intelligence. Chi-square
test indicates that there is a significant difference between the extent of
marketing intelligence that particular ethnic groups think that they possess (c2 = 36.094, df = 9, p < 0.000).
Having made decisions, from available information,
managers and team leaders need to be able to effectively implement them.
Question 33 enquired of the frequency with which managers or team leaders
sought respondents’ advice on decision implementation. Analysis shows that 27.1
% Whites, 100% Asians, 86.2% Blacks and 100% Chinese and other minority ethnic
groups say that, managers and team leaders, to a great extent, consult them.
55.7% Whites, 0% Asians, 13.8% Blacks and 0% Chinese and other minority ethnic
groups say that they consult them, to a fair extent. 8.6% White and 0% of the
other groups suggest that they have never consulted them. Chi-square test
indicates that these differences are significant at: c2 = 52.671, df = 12. p < 0.000.
Managers and team leaders’ solicitation of decision
implementation advice from workers is biased in favour of males, with 65.3% of
them being consulted compared with less than 15% female. This means that they
have never consulted more than 85% female, compared with only 34.7% male. The
difference between the degree to which managers and team leaders consulted the
two groups is significant (c2
= 27.523, df = 4, p < 0.000).
Workers’
Perception, and Reality, of the Internal Organisational Environment
This section of analysis attempts to establish the nature of Pike
International’s work environment and workers’ perception of a number of issues
associated with its functioning. It comparatively analyses these factors in
relation to the sex, race and ethnicity of respondents. The researcher posed
two questions on internal promotion – one on the number of times that
respondents applied for promotion and the other on the number of times that
they had been successful.
10.7% male and 16.7% female never sought
promotion in the organisation. 25.3% male and 20% female applied for promotion
1-4 times, while 54.7% and 33.3% male and female, respectively, applied for
promotion 5-9 times. The remaining 9.5% male and 30% female applied for
promotion 10 or more times. These percentages represent significant differences
between the sexes at: c2 = 8.893, df = 3, p < 0.031.
There is no significant difference between the times that members of
different ethnic groups applied for promotion. 8.6% Whites, 25% Asians, 17.2%
Blacks and 50% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups never applied for
promotion. 31.4% Whites, 25% Asians and 6.9% Blacks (no Chinese, etc.) applied
for promotion 1 – 4 times. 50% Whites, 25% Asians, 51% Black and 0% Chinese and
other minority ethnic groups applied for promotion 5 - 9 times. No Chinese, 10%
Whites, 25% Asians, 24% Blacks and 50% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups
applied for promotion 10 or more times. Chi-square test indicates that there is
no significant difference between the times that members of particular ethnic
groups applied. This is represented as: c2 =
15.965, df =9, p < 0.68.
Having established the extent of individual bids for promotion, based on
respondents’ sex, race and ethnicity, analysis now examines the degree to which
workers had been successful in these attempts. Of those who applied for
promotion, 73.1% of female, compared with 32.9% of male, were never successful.
43.8% male and 23.1% female were successful in their application for promotion
on 1-4 occasions. 23.3% male and 3.8% female have been successful in their application
5-9 times. As Table 19 shows, there is a major difference (40.2%) between males
and females who had never been successful in their application for promotion.
There is also a disparity, in favour of males, between the times that
respondents had been successful in their search for promotion. For example,
analysis indicates that females are more than twice as likely to be
unsuccessful in their application for promotion as their male counterparts.33
The difference in the success rate of the two groups is significant at: c2 = 13.271, df = 2, p <
0.001.
c2 =13.271, df = 2, p < 0.001
Chi-square test indicates a significant difference between individual
promotion success and their membership of particular ethnic group. While no
Asian or Chinese and other minority ethnic groups have ever been promoted, less
than 12% Blacks and over 70% Whites have been promoted, at least once (Table
20).
c2 = 40.979, df = 9, p < 0.000
Many workers have expressed their disappointment with the system that is
in place for internal promotion, some, even those benefiting from it,
threatening to stage a boycott. Some informants accuse the selection panels of
customising job descriptions and personnel specifications to ensure that their
preferred candidates ‘un-mistakably’ match the ‘engineered profile’, others
suggesting that panel members are “downright discriminatory”. One informant
claims:
“Management
has a way of trying to explain away what is openly their highly discriminatory
practices!
“But one ‘think’ that they forget is that the
people that they try to ‘brainwash’ with their ‘crap’ are far more intelligent
than they are. They don’t even realise that with a ‘discipline’ like mine, I
turn them ‘inside out’
“They
do try to insult one’s intelligence – to a great extent they do! But ………. ‘The
less said’.”
On return from visiting an overseas ‘agency’, and having received ….
briefing on another round of appointments, a furious informant exclaimed:
“Why
do you think that I have never applied?! It does not matter how lucrative the
position, it will never be my entitlement. I am not certain who ‘calls the
shots’ but ‘Iiiii’ think ‘thhhaaa’ ‘a’ ‘haaave’ a fair idea.
“Why
‘don’ they follow the ‘management succession chart’ that they have created, and
to which no one else but they have access? Why do they waste our time?”
As the quantitative analysis suggests, women and minority ethnic groups
are worst off in these exercises. After another ‘fatal’ attempt to secure the
promotion to which she had long aspired, and for which she thought that she was
ideally suited, Millie stormed out of her office, on receiving the unwelcome
news. She sighed effortlessly - in an unforgiving tone, and spoke unerringly:
“I
am not now certain what is required of me!
“I
am that person! I fit the profile - like none other! – Yet, I was denied the
opportunity to advance!
“This is not a
mistake! It is deliberate! I ‘coo¢d’ do that ‘joob’. Very well but …….. has got everything
to lose.. I should be valued – taken seriously. I have quite overstepped my
bounds, this time. I wasted my time and ‘their’s’”
“I
could have done better with my time! It’s ok!
“I will live long
enough to see …….. fail.”
Many minority ethnic workers have ‘traumatic’ experiences
of events leading up to and including their denial of internal promotion. One
worker, who was denied promotion to a supervisory position, complained that he
was asked to train the new appointee, who had no experience in that sphere of
work. He remarks:
“I
really don’t mind training or helping colleagues and juniors to be more
efficient in the performance of their tasks, but to be asked, by my manager, to
train a new appointee, who could not undertake the job, in the first instance,
is very ridiculous. I cannot understand how he got the job in the first place.
If I do not do as I am told – to train, train, train! – I will have no job. To
whom do I complain? Absolutely no one! I expect to be reward for my technical
achievement and dedication to task but that will be outside of this
organisation. In this place, the anti-discriminatory laws have no effect!”
During the questionnaire administration period, one black
female worker approached the researcher, smiling broadly, and after her
normally polite salutation, punctuated by a brief moment of silence, declared:
“I
am on my way out! I feel quite well until I enter these ‘enclosures’. It is
difficult to explain but there does not appear to be any formal procedure for
appointments and promotion. My supervisor left and my manager simply had a
‘quiet word’ with one of my colleagues, a ‘white girl’. Before I realise, she
was ‘acting-up’. The next thing is that she got the job. We did not as much
‘has’ got a note to tell us that we had a new supervisor – she just started
telling us what to do. That is really life – Aint it!?”
Even when workers have not been promoted, they still expect some degree
of intrinsic motivation, least of which is commendation on their performance –
when they deserve it. Question 13 asks: “How often does your manager commend
you on your work performance, when you think you deserve it?” While 10% Whites,
50% Asians, 48.3% Blacks and 50% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups had
never been commended, 8.6%, 52.9% and 28.6% Whites had received commendation
very often, often and seldom, respectively. 50% Asians, 48.3% Blacks and 50%
Chinese and others said that they had seldom received commendation from their
manager, when they thought that they deserved it. The chi-square test result,
showing significant difference between these frequencies, is: c2
= 40.979, df = 9, p < 0.000.
While managers have never commended 17.3% male and 40% female, they often
commend 46.7% of male and 6.7% female. 29.3% male and 50% female said that
their managers seldom commend them but 6.7% male and 3.3% female said that they
very often receive commendation from them. Statistics represent a significant
difference between these frequencies, with a chi-square representation of: c2
= 17.368, df = 3. p < 0.001.
Even where managers fail to commend workers on their performance, when
they deserve it, all is not lost because colleagues might offer the type of
feedback that is likely to be realistic, as a result of their close
association. But how do respondents interpret the feedback that they receive
from them? On the bases of race and ethnicity, only Whites (18.6%) feel that
they receive a fair balance of comments. 10% Whites, 25% Asians, 3.4% Blacks
and 50% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups feel that the feedback that
they receive from their colleagues is harsh but justifiable. 32.9% Whites, 0%
Asians, 6.9% Blacks and 0% Chinese and other groups feel that the feedback is
positive. These percentages compare with 21.4% Whites, 75% Asians, 69% Blacks
and 0% Chinese and other groups who say that they received negative feedback.
12.9% Whites, 0% Asians, 10.3% Blacks and 50% Chinese and other groups receive
constructive feedback. These percentages are matched by 4.3%, 0%, 10.3% and 0%
of the respective racial and ethnic groups, who claim that the feedback, that
they receive from their colleagues consists of a mixture of all the categories
indicated above. These figures are significant at: c2 = 39.190, df = 15, p
< 0.001.
There is, however, no significant difference between the types of
feedback that colleagues provide their counterparts, based on their sex. For
example, while 26.7% of male and 16.7% female say that the comments that they
receive are positive, 34.7% and 40% of them, respectively, say that the
comments are negative. However, only 5.3% male and 6.7% female thought that the
comments that they receive are a mixture of the different categories. The
chi-square representation is: c2
= 3.506, df = 5, p < .623.
Because general organisational operation
of Pike International appears to be more accommodating of particular groups of
workers, White and male, analysis attempts to determine respondents’ impression
of the work atmosphere. They were asked: “How would you describe the atmosphere
within your organisation?” (question 24). Only Whites (25.7%) describe the atmosphere
as very friendly. While 48.6% of them also describe the atmosphere as friendly,
Blacks (6.9%) are the only other ethnic group that describe it similarly.
However, 20% Whites, 50% Asians, just over 44% Black and all Chinese and other
groups describe it as unfriendly. All Chinese describe the situation as
unfriendly, followed by 50% Asians, 44.8% Blacks and 20% Whites. 50% Asians,
48.3% Blacks and 5.7% Whites say that the atmosphere is intolerable - Table 21
illustrating the significant difference between informants’ perception.
c2 = 51.885, df = 9, p <0.000
Is
it possible that male and female have different perceptions about the
atmosphere of Pike International? Lets examine the statistics. 24% male and no
female describe the atmosphere as very friendly, while 40% male and 20% female
think that it is friendly. The remainder of respondents think that it is either
unfriendly or intolerable, the former being the perception of most female. As
Table 22 indicates, these differences are statistically significant.
c2 = 18.381, df = 3, p < 0.000
Even
though particular sex, race and ethnic groups view the atmosphere of their
organisation differently, it is possible that they receive reasonable
assistance from their colleagues. Question 25, solicits: “How might you
describe the degree to which your colleagues assist you in the performance of
your role?” 20% male but no female describe their colleagues as extremely
supportive, while 40% male and 10% female think that they are supportive. 8%
male, compared with 26.7% female find their colleagues to be fairly supportive,
with 28% male and 63.3% female suggesting that their colleagues are
unsupportive. These differences are significant at: c2 = 25.848, df = 3, p < 0.000.
Whites are the only ethnic group (21.4%)
who find their colleagues extremely supportive. 50% Whites, 0% Asians, 3.4%
Blacks and 0% Chinese and others describe their colleagues as supportive. 10%
White, 25% Asian, 17.2 Black and 50% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups
regard them as fairly supportive. Asians (75%) and Blacks (79.3%) largely view
their colleagues as unsupportive - a view shared by 18.6% Whites and 50%
Chinese and other minority ethnic groups. The significant difference between
these perceptions is confirmed by chi-square test, at: c2 = 47.423, df = 9, p < 0.000
Question 26 is similar to question 25
but refers to respondents’ managers instead of their colleagues. 18.6% of the
White respondents, and none of the other groups, find their managers extremely
supportive. 48.6 Whites, 0% Asians, 3.4% Blacks and 0% Chinese and other
minority ethnic groups find their managers supportive. While 14.3% Whites, 0%
Asians, 10,3% Blacks and 0% Chinese and others attest that managers are fairly
supportive, 18.6%, 75%, 86% and 100% of these racial and ethnic groups,
respectively, suggest that they are unsupportive. Chi-square test reveals the
significant difference that exists between their perceptions. The result of the
chi-square test is: c2 =
73.341, df = 12, p < 0.000.
As in the case of race and ethnicity,
there is disparity in the extent to which the sexes perceive managers as
helpful. Just over 17% male and no female perceive their managers as extremely
supportive. 90% of the female respondents and less than 30% of the male
describe their managers as unsupportive. As Table 23 indicates, these differences in perception are significant.
c2 = 23.837, df = 4, p < 0.000
The
researcher is fund of including a question, in this type of organisational
analysis, which assesses the degree of worker commitment. The question (#28)
asks: “If you had a choice, would you rather:
1. Be at
home now
2. Go on a
long vacation
3. Work more
hours
4. Work less
hours
5. Work
elsewhere
6. Have the
situation remain the same?”
The
problem with this question is that the interpretation of responses is not as
straightforward as it might appear. For example, it is possible that those
people who choose alternative 1, depending on the time of day that they
completed the questionnaire, might have been really tired and would just like
to relax for a while. In this case, they would have been refreshed by the
following day.
Those
who chose alternative 2 might have been tired of having had to contend with
consistent changes within the organisation and would like to get away on a
vacation, hoping that this will be mentally, physically and emotionally
stimulating. Alternatively, their holiday might really be overdue for work
related and personal reasons. It is understandable, therefore, if they would
like to ‘get-away’ for an extended period.
Those
who elect to work more hours (alternative 3) might need to boost their pay
packets. This is because operators and some clerical and administrative workers
are allowed to claim overtime but this has to be approved by their line
managers. As has been the case at Pike International, it is one way of earning
extra cash to make additional purchases, go on holidays, or undertake needed
home improvement. This privilege is denied other categories of staff – often a
source of contention, illustrated by one informant, thinking aloud, muttering:
“I cannot
understand the logic of some people being allowed overtime and others have to
work extra hours for nothing. They are paid less and end up getting more for
less work – mostly less quality!
“This is
an issue that needs urgent attention but no one dares to raise it – neither
will I! I will not be the only beneficiary of any positive outcome!”
Workers
who choose alternative 4 are probably under a great deal of work pressure, as
James, a professional worker announced, just after a departmental meeting, at
which ‘individual plan of action’ was discussed:
“Welcome
to Cuckoo Land
“Is it
that they really do not understand, or are they just trying to be obstructive?
Every day, weekends inclusive, I have to take home boxes of files – not for the
show”.
Pausing
briefly, he grasped his attaché case, snapped it open, documents flung in, and
in ‘lightning swift’ succession securing the ‘flip locks’ – unscrambling their
combination. Shrugging his shoulders vertically, smiling broadly, he bacons to
the researcher – a signal to leave the room. Slamming his office door – locking
it ‘ratchet quick’ – he turns to the long corridor ahead, nods to the
researcher, and in a most apologetic voice, suggests:
“Lets’
go”.
Having
walked across the annex, overlooking the car park, the researcher enquires:
“Are you
on your way home?”
His
unexpected response bellows as we advanced towards the car park:
“I wish I
could really say! – Home or work!”
Then
pointing to the vacant lot, towards the sunset, exclaimed:
“There
goes my social life! My family life is already gone! My …… was right – I ‘aam’
married to ‘mmy’ job.
“But is
….. not the only one who thinks so!?
“I do
believe that there is a limit, a time separation between work and leisure! That
work-life balance!
“I must
be daft! Very daft!”
Then
in an instant, after biding:
“Cheers!”
He
deactivated his security system, prized his front door open, and offloaded his
luggage. Entering his car with a smile, he soon fastened his safety belt and
turned the ignition on. Affording a final but firm wave, he started the
ignition, and with an instantaneous movement, sped off as though to ‘ride into
the sunset’ or ‘meet one’s destiny’.
If
we make allowance for those ‘light’ responses, then we can concentrate on the
two really important ones – 5 and 6. These are the two that test morale and
commitment. Those who elect to have the situation remain the same could be
either ‘cosy’ or highly motivated. Those who express a desire to leave the
organisation must be experiencing a low level of morale – choosing to
disassociate from that establishment. They are likely to be frustrated with the
existing situation.
Because
of the complexity of interpretation of the analysis of these responses, rather
than a value of p < 0.05, the researcher would like to suggest p < 0.005
as the level of significance. 25.3% and 30.7% of male respondents subscribe
alternatives 5 and 6, respectively. In the same order, similar categories of
responses for female are 50% and 16.7%, respectively. 17.3% male and 16.7%
female elected to work fewer hours, while 10.7% male and 3.3% female would
rather work more hours. More male (at 8%) than female (at 3.3%) would rather go
on a long vacation but 8% and 10% of them, respectively, would have liked to be
at home. Chi-square test shows no significant difference between the
preferences of the two groups: c2 =
7.751, df = 8, p < 0.170.
As Table 24 indicates, there is a
significant difference between the preferences of the racial and ethnic groups.
Let us compare the percentage of respondents who would like to work elsewhere:
17.1% White; 50% Asian; 65.5% Black; 50% Chinese and other.
c2 = 34.030, df = 15, p < 0.003
Frustrated with his/her low-level of
utilisation, one informant observes:
“When my manager needed quality assurance award, …
‘paraded’ me and used my influence to gain accreditation. However, as soon as
the organisation gained its enviable status, I was no longer of any importance
to them
“They would have expected that my memory would have
been as conveniently short as theirs. However, I cannot help but remember how
important I was to them before they achieved their current status. Not only
does my ‘wretched deployment’ hurts but it stifles me!”
Another worker, having achieved
first-level supervisory status remarked:
“One would have thought that the fact that we are
paid fairly handsomely – I have never groused over the ‘pay issue’ – we would
be expected to produce ‘our worth in gold’. Unfortunately, the non-recognition
of our potential contribution in particular spheres – ones to which we are
known to be able to make a valuable contribution – is something that is beyond
my comprehension.
“Irrespective of how ‘obnoxious’ managers perceive
particular groups of workers, it is their technical expertise and the quality
of their contribution that should really count. In the end, it is the
organisation, which loses out, strategically and operationally. There were many
occasions when things have gone wrong and I am convinced that I am able, and
willing, to help but no one asks me.
“I have stopped volunteering because of being turned
down for tasks that one is competent to undertake, and for which one is not
being paid, adds insults to injury. The excuses that one is given insult, and
suffocates, one’s intelligence!”
One recently promoted informant, already
frustrated with his/her new role, remarks:
“I have had complaints from colleagues that they are
‘stretched to the limit’. For me, that could not possibly be a complaint. They
are overworked and under-paid but I am under-utilised! I do not mind ‘them’
holding back a slice of my salary, if I felt that I was satisfactorily
assigned”.
Pike International’s illegal
discriminatory practices, possibly unintentionally, extends to ‘working times’.
Several informants complain of receiving unreasonable requests from managers to
work extra hours, for which, unlike others, they are not paid. Some are called
back to work before the expiration of their lunch break.
On one occasion, while having lunch with a female minority
ethnic worker, she looked at her watch and remarked:
“Sorry!
But I really have to go! I was not supposed to have been at lunch in the first
place. It is against the rule but my manager insists that I eat on the premises
and get back to my desk as soon as I am finished. I do not fancy being out of a
job!. I know of the Tribunals but nobody knows how these things might turn
out!.
“I
am very sorry but I really have to go! Bye!”
Pike International’s Efforts Towards Diversity
Management
Rather than taking practical steps to manage diversity, the
organisation has bought itself membership of an external body, which seeks to
publicise its alliance – a marketing opportunity. However, workers, clients and
customers, who are aware of the significance of this membership, suggest that
the organisation has misinterpreted the whole issue. In addition to this
initiative, and in an effort to record a strategic commitment, for the purpose
of misguiding its owners and sponsors, the organisation has established a focus
group. While the group meets fairly regularly, many members are sceptical of
its real purpose because, rather than learning from the experiences of its
participants, management often uses the occasion to ‘smooth away the rough
edges’ – hoping that the presumed sheen that remains will ‘snowball’ internally
and externally. Any positive steps that management embarks upon, emanating from
the focus group, represent ‘window dressing’, without any real impact on the
status quo.
No lessons that have been learnt from diversity internally
and externally have affected policy and no guidance is provided for managers.
Pseudo-measures are in place at operational level that seek to address
recruitment and selection but they are not adhered to and no attempt is made to
enforce them. Operational directors and managers feel that they have nothing to
fear if they ignore all that is merely ‘rhetoric for public consumption’.
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In practice, Pike International is
inherently discriminatory, particularly in relation to sex, race and ethnicity.
This factor compromises the effectiveness of its human resource utilisation.
Valuable skills, knowledge and expertise that exist within its workforce might
remain untapped, resting within the neglected and largely excluded groups. Male
workers are more likely to be involved in organisational activities, rewarded,
consulted, encouraged, and valued than their female counterparts. Wherever
there is a choice between the races, the order of preference for general
involvement, reward, consultation, encouragement, and value is Whites, Blacks,
Asians, and Chinese and other minority ethnic groups. Combining these groups,
White male is the most favoured for all these ‘treats’.
Empirical analysis clearly establishes
that there is a great disparity between the degree to which different groups
within Pike International have been utilised, as demonstrated by the degree to
which they gain membership of committees and task forces, and their views are
accepted at these and departmental and team meetings. Workers’ utilisation is
also tested in relation to the degree to which operational and corporate
managers consult workers and accept the suggestions that they, periodically,
make to them.
Chi-square test shows no significant
difference in the pattern of membership of committees and taskforces over the
years, based on sex - a probability greater than 0.05 (c2 =
8.529, df = 5, p < 0.112). However, it is worth considering that almost 80%
of the male respondents, compared with less than 60% female, were members of at
least one committee or task force. More than 90% of those who belonged to 4
task forces or committees were male and less than 10% female. Some males, but
no female, were members of 5 or more of these groups.
Even though there is no significant difference between male and female’s
previous and current membership of committees or task forces, there is a
significant difference in membership based on race and ethnicity. As Table 5 illustrates,
81.3% of the respondents who have been members of 2 committees and taskforces,
were White. Whites also represent 86.4%, 80.9%, and 77.8% of respondents who
were members of 3, 4 and 5 committees and task forces, respectively. 21.4%
Whites, 48.3% Blacks and 50% Chinese were never members of any of these types
of groups.
17.1% Whites, 75% Asians, 20.7% Blacks and 50% Chinese and other minority
ethnic groups are members of only one task force or committee. Only whites
(100%), who also constitute 89.5% of the members of 2 groups, are currently
members of 4 and more of these groups. Statistically significant, this
membership pattern has a chi-square representation of: χ2 = 38.240,
df = 15, p < 0.001.
Wastage of human resource is further
illustrated by bias in acceptance of the contributions that individuals make to
meetings, males and Whites being the most favoured groups. For example, there
is a significant difference between the extent to which the views of the sexes
are accepted, at team meetings (c2 =
29.896, df=4, p < 0 000), those who always had their views accepted being
male (100%). More than 90% male and less than 7% female very often and 90% male
and 10% female often had their views accepted.
Whites, compared with 0% of other ethnic
groups, always had their views accepted at committee and task force meetings.
No White ever had his or her views rejected at these meetings but 41.2% of the
views of Blacks were rejected. Whites were the only ethnic group who very often
had their views accepted. Over 90% respondents’ views that committee members
very often accept at meetings are those of Whites (Table 7). Male is also the
more represented group of respondents whose views their members always (87.5%),
very often (93.3%) often (85.7%), and seldom (59.1%) accept at these meetings.
Only 6.5% male, compared with 16.7 female never had their views accepted.
Chi-square test indicates that there is a significant difference in the pattern
of acceptance of views (Table 8).
Analysis indicates that female are three times more likely to have their
views rejected at departmental meetings than their male counterparts. These
differences, as Table 9 indicates, are statistically significant.
While the basis of committees
constitution is wide representation and that of task force expertise (Naylor,
1999; Certo, 2000; Robbins, 2001), one pertinent question is: Why constitute
the groups in the way that they are, if there is scepticism regarding the value
of the contribution of particular individuals? The impression that women and
minority ethnic groups cannot make effective contributions in these types of
meetings is not borne out in reality at Pike International, since some of the
views that are accepted at these meetings are those that were presented by
members of less or least favoured group or groups. These views having been
ignored on their first presentation are later accepted, after being resonated
by members of a more or most favoured group. This situation is exemplified by
the fact that if a member of Black or other minority ethnic group presents what
is eventually lauded as the most brilliant idea, it is played down or
outrightly rejected. However, when this same idea is again represented, this
time by a White member, it is overwhelmingly accepted. This is a situation
where the view presented the second time round is not repackaged, often missing
one or more key points from its first presentation – obviously because the
resonator has little comprehension of the implicit ideas. Resonation occurs in
the male vs. female scenario but is not as common as White vs. minority ethnic
groups. Therefore, as evidenced by Pike International, a White male, firstly,
and a White female, secondly, can be successful resonators.
White is the most favoured group at departmental meetings – with 21.4% of
its members very often, and 47.1% often having their views accepted. White is
the only ethnic group of which a percentage of respondents (5.7%) always had
their views accepted at these meetings. 2.9% White, compared with 24.1% Black respondents
never had their views accepted at departmental meetings. 97.1% of respondents
who often had their views accepted at these types of meetings, were White.
Chi-square test indicates that there is a significant difference between to way
in which members’ views were accepted at departmental meetings, based on
ethnicity (c2
= 49.476, df = 12, p< 0.000).
Comparing the qualifications and experience of workers based on sex and
ethnicity, it is clear that female and minority ethnic groups have qualifications
and experience that are equal, or superior, to those of their male and White
counterparts. Blacks have three times as many PhDs as Whites. 82.7% of Black,
compared with 61.4% White respondents hold undergraduate degrees and above –
these percentages being closely related to the population. Despite the fact
that the number of males with PhDs is just over 3% more than female, 73.3%
female, compared with 66.7% male respondents have qualifications at degree
level and above. What logic prevails, therefore, for the fact that Blacks are
three times more likely to have their views rejected at team meetings than
their White counterparts, who field 100% of the members who always had their
views accepted and over 90% and almost 100% of those who very often and often
had their’s accepted? (a significant difference at: c2 = 60.748, df=12, p
< 0.000). Women are also 1.5 times more likely to have their views rejected
at these meetings as their male counterparts (represented, statistically as: c2
= 29.896, df = 4, p < 0.000).
Table 11 further illustrates the extent
of under-utilisation of Pike International’s workforce. It indicates that of
the 105 respondents, managers only ever consult Whites, and are three times as
likely to consult male (59.1%) as female (17.9%). The bias in consultation is
extended to team leaders, who often consult Whites
and Blacks - 87.5% and 12.5%, respectively. They only ever consult 13% of the
females (Table 12). Corporate managers do not paint a better picture,
being twice more likely to consult male than female (a significant difference
represented as: c2 =
16.232, df = 3, p < 0.001 – Table 13). They consult only two ethnic groups,
Whites and Blacks - 61.4% and 3.4%, respectively (Table 14). This means that
they are 18 times more likely to consult Whites than Blacks and highly unlikely
to consult any other ethnic group.
Despite the great extent to which they have been ‘excluded’ from
committee and task force membership, their views have been rejected at
meetings, and have been neglected in consultation, what represents a
demonstration of the degree to which they are determined to make a
contribution, female and minority ethnic groups are desirous of providing
advice, on an individual basis, to managers and team leaders.
While only 2% of Whites in the sample very often volunteer their views to
team leaders, 29% Asians and 29.6% Blacks do so very often. 60% Whites, 50%
Asians and 55.6% Blacks, and 100% Chinese and other ethnic minority groups
volunteered advice to team leaders often, while 36% Whites and 11.1% Blacks
seldom do. Chi-square analysis confirm that these percentages are significant
at: c2
= 24.026, df = 9, p < 0.004.
A slightly
greater percentage male than female, 98.3% and 92% respectively, volunteer
advice to team leaders, showing no significant difference between them (c2
= 2.691, df = 3, p < 0.442). However, team leaders reject 60% of the
views that female members offer, compared with only 28.1% of those of their
male counterparts present, a significant difference at: c2 = 15.357, df = 4, p
< 0.004.
There is also a significant difference between the racial and ethnic
groups whose information team leaders accept, weighing in favour of Whites,
(65.35%) - the only group whose views they always accept. They seldom accept
the views of 22.4% Whites, 25.9% Blacks and 50% of Chinese and other minority
ethnic groups (a significant difference at: c2 = 45.233, df = 12, p < 0.000).
92.6% Blacks, 91.5% White, 75% Asians and all Chinese and other minority
ethnic groups in the sample volunteer information to their heads of department
(Table 16) but they reject, a large proportion of those from minority ethnic
groups - 75% Asians, almost 77% Blacks and 50% Chinese and other minority
ethnic groups (Table 17). 96.4% female and 100% male volunteer information to
heads of department but they accept 81% of those proposed by male, compared
with only 35.7% of the female.
Workers command marketing
intelligence to varying degrees, which organisations should be delighted to
‘exploit’. Unfortunately, for Pike International, the groups, which claim to
possess the most marketing intelligence, are the ones, which are least
consulted, whose views are largely ignored and who are denied membership of
committees and task forces. Although the quantitative element of the research
did not explore the type of marketing intelligence that workers possess, it can
be deduced from qualitative – not anecdotal – evidence that they have extensive
knowledge regarding product and service development, demand, and placing. They
are aware of the needs and wants of their particular group, and are,
consequently, ‘experts’ at advising on the direction of new product
development, enhancement of existing products, their placing and final
delivery.
An overwhelming 80% female, compared with just
under 25% male, suggest that they have a great deal of marketing intelligence.
Just over 50% male and 16.7% female agreed that they possess this information,
to a fair extent – a significant difference between them (Table 18). Despite
this factor, senior managers consult 13.3% of the female respondents, compared
with 54.1% of their male counterparts. Therefore, they have neglected to
consult almost twice as many female (86.7%) as male (45.9%). The frequency with
which they consult the two groups is also different. While they very often
consult 3.3% female and 1.4% male, they often consult 21.6% male and just 3.3%
female. In addition, seldom consult 31.1% male and 6.7% female. Chi-square test
indicates a significant difference between the extent to which corporate
managers consult the sexes (c2 = 16.232, df = 3, p < .001).
Compared with Whites, members of minority ethnic groups possess a great
deal of marketing intelligence. If nothing, the very groups that are largely
excluded from most of the processes should be the ones that are given maximum
inclusion. Only 27.1% Whites, compared with 100% Asians, 86.2% Blacks and 100%
Chinese and other minority ethnic groups, possess a great deal of marketing
intelligence (significant difference, at: c2 =
36.094, df = 9, p < 0.000), a case of managers ‘barking up the wrong tree’.
Even though frustrated with their low level of inclusion, the
determination of female and ethnic minorities to get fully involved in
organisational process is demonstrated in the degree to which they seek
promotion. 83. % of female and 89.3% male applied for promotion, even though
73.1% female, compared with 32.9% male, were unsuccessful, a difference
significant at: c2 = 13.271, df = 2, p <
0.001. While 91.4% Whites, 75% Asians, 82.8% Blacks and 50% Chinese and other
minority ethnic groups applied for promotion, no Asian or Chinese and other
minority ethnic groups had ever been promoted, with less than 12% Blacks and
over 70% Whites succeeding, at least once (Table 20).
Disparity with the promotion system in Pike International is just part of
the bias of the reward system. Albeit intrinsic, offering commendation to
workers, when they deserve it, is one way that managers can encourage workers
to maintain and improve their performance. It is difficult to think, therefore,
the rationale that they have for operating this system along sexist and racial
lines. Only 10% Whites, compared with 50% Asians, 48.3% Blacks and 50% Chinese
and other minority ethnic groups had never been commended. Managers, therefore,
consulted 90% Whites. While they have never commended 17.3% male and 40%
female, they often commend 46.7% of male but only 6.7% female.
Because they receive little encouragement from managers, workers will
certainly look forward to their colleagues’ feedback, which they expect to be
fair. However, while the feedback to Whites is generally favourable or
justifiable, those to 21.4% Whites, compared with 75% Asians and 69% Blacks are
negative.
The empirical analysis has pointed to
sex, race, and ethnic exclusion from the advice, support and encouragement that
their colleagues and managers offer. Although this factor does not affect the
extent to which they volunteer information to them, they appear to affect their
perception of the work environment and their commitment to the organisation.
All the above experiences will certainly lead workers to formulate an
impression of their environment.
Only Whites (25.7%) and male (24%), whom
the system most favours, describe the atmosphere as very friendly. However,
100% Asians 93.1% Blacks and 100% Chinese and other minority ethnic groups
(Table 21) describe the system as unfriendly or intolerable. 28% male and 63.3%
female suggest that their colleagues are unsupportive (Table 22). Whites are
the only ethnic group (21.4%) which found their colleagues extremely
supportive. 75% Asians and 79.3% Blacks view their colleagues as unsupportive,
with only 18.6% Whites giving this description.
Pike International plays out the
situation where those who derive most benefit from the system and are made to
feel cosy and welcome, are desirous of maintaining association with the
organisation. Those who benefit least, are discriminated against, are
frustrated with the system, will most likely to elect to leave. As Table 24
indicates, there is a significant difference between the preferences of the
racial and ethnic groups. Let us compare the percentage of respondents who
would like to work elsewhere: 17.1% White; 50% Asian; 65.5% Black; 50% Chinese
and other minority ethnic groups (c2 =
34.030, df = 15, p < 0.003).
Effecting Diversity Management:
Towards Coherent Policy and Strategy
The Under-utilisation Of Diverse Workforce
has been established, theoretically and empirically, both as organisational
failings and disregard for legislation. Often organisations, in their
discriminatory practices, severely prejudice their interest. An ‘inclusive
policy’ will dictate that diversity is mandatory for the constitution of
committees, task forces and focus groups. This ‘added value’ of diversity will
transform the organisation’s products and services, increasing its market
standing. When organisations support this notion, it will not need to be
coerced to exercise ‘notional’ regard for workplace diversity – specifically
gender, race and ethnicity. As this research has established, effective
‘exploitation’ of diversity can spare an organisation a great deal of
embarrassment and even avert impending catastrophe - ensuring that workers are
developed in such a way that they make a maximum impact on its survival
efforts.
Several writers have offered help in managing diversity,
not least of whom is Rifkin and Fulop (1997), who advocate the recognition of
diversity through the more familiar and non-reflexive language through which
management fads are popularised. They, nevertheless, warn that they must create
a space for multiple voices to be represented – thematising, rather than
minimising racial issues (Kersten, 2000, p. 246) and differences. Groschl
and Doherty (1999) advocate a conceptually based diversity strategy.
According to Flood and Romm (1996, p.161) “managing the
increasing diversity of models, methodologies and theories that continue to
come to the fore, thus improving the increasing diversity of issues confronted”
is a necessary managerial responsibility.
Emerging from the empirical study of Hemphill and Haines
(cited in Phomphakdy and Kleiner, (1999, pp. 44-45), on diversity training,
with 500 senior executives, directors, managers and 100 internal and external
consultants and trainers, is the prescription that organisations should
institute a:
·
Zero tolerance policy for
discrimination practices
·
Baseline workplace behaviour
standards expected of all employees
·
Supportive workplace
relationship skills programme.
D’Netto and Sohal (1999), in reference to Jackson et al
(1995) suggest the need for managers to understand that a diverse workforce, in
terms of gender, race, ethnicity, age, national origin and other personal
characteristics, means that members exhibit different attitudes, needs,
desires, values and work behaviours.
However, Gill (1996) asserts that adopting a strategy of
managing diversity means actively considering employees as heterogeneous,
rather than the traditional methods based around homogeneity. Even though the
author warns that it is labour intensive, the resultant increased morale and
motivation will boost retention rates – a contribution to direct and indirect
costs, enhancing organisational effectiveness. As Perks and Sanderson (2000)
discovered, in reference to the JVC Start-up Project in Indonesia
Egge (1999, p.25) observes that diversity policy and
procedure statements “will not prevent discrimination and harassment from
occurring but will state the employer’s stance on such issues that hopefully
will encourage employees to conduct themselves accordingly”.
The researcher joins Horwitz, Boemaker-Falconer and Searll
(1996, pp.134-35) in advocating a combination of soft and hard approaches to
ensure an effective diversity management but that we move in swift succession
from the former to the latter. The soft approach will focus on consciousness or
awareness raising, in an effort to generate a better understanding, by
attempting to change individuals’ attitudes and values – without expecting any
lasting change.
The hard approach will assume that
meaningful change occurs through challenging organisational or institutional
policies – advocating “the implementation of more appropriate recruitment and
selective training and development, promotion rewards and performance
management systems, which reinforce desired behaviours”. This approach requires
that diversity is an inherent aspect of policy and strategy. It suggests that
there are monitoring and control systems that surpass the idea of equal
opportunities. These will ensure that workers are given clear directives to
avert any claim of ignorance. They will incorporate a mechanism for the
elicitation and dissemination of information crucial to the continuance and
enhancement of the process. Organisational design and redesign effort will take
account of the ‘structure-culture symbiosis’ and its effect on race and gender
issues. As is the practice in Levi Strauss,
internalisation of diversity issues must be a prerequisite for any reward –
incremental or large-scale. People should not be allowed to remain in, or
appointed to, positions crucial to effective diversity management, where they
are a snob to the process.
While we make progress towards the management of diversity,
the first thought is usually about training – which might resolve only some
problems, if any. As a word of caution, it can damage relations - generating
animosity among workers – if the content, activities and objectives are not
systematically addressed. As Phomphakdy and Kleiner (1999) discovered, from
their empirical research, the quality of training and trainers are often very
poor, generating real post-delivery problems. In particular, we must be wary of
sensitivity training, which several consultants have attempted with devastating
consequences. Where this approach is used, expert attention is desirable. Gomez-Mejia, Balkin and Cardy (2001) warn of
the over-dramatisation of diversity in some diversity training activities -
representing an issue that Njeri highlighted as early as 1989 - that risks the
creation of inaccurate assumptions, which can be offensive when they are
applied to specific employees.
Although presented seven years ago, the following excerpts
should seek as a lasting reminder of the nature of diversity training in an
effort to reclaim our position in a world, where workforce diversity is a legal
obligation, a moral obligation and a survival imperative:
“Diversity training requires people to talk about …
previously hidden topics. This inevitably brings up “unspeakable” fears of
being racist, sexist or offensive. …… the very tensions that some participants
and organisations feel are uncomfortable are the very ones that must be
addressed in order for organisational change to occur.
“Diversity training ideally provides a voice for the
undiscussable. Without this voice, the discourse of the organisation remains
mired in unexamined assumptions and acts in ways that ignore or exacerbate the
hidden tensions of race, gender and other differences” (Lindsay, 1994, pp.
20-21). It must be driven by the needs of individuals –
not individually tailored (see e.g. Allen, 1994).
With specific reference to the empirical research, might the
respondents’ differing interpretation be a result of their cultural
dissimilarity and expectation of reality? Or, by what standard should reality
be adjudged? While there are pertinent and intervening questions – ones that
subsequent research might address – Pike International has an inherent cultural
problem, manifesting in gender and racial biases, which it urgently needs to
address if it is to continue to represent a hallmark of a traditional ‘British
Institution’.
Pike International is similar, in several respects, to many
‘reputable’ British organisations. If their practices and preferences are also
similar, then not only do they represent an infringement of United Kingdom’s
attempt to create a free and fair society, in which people are treated with
respect, but by operating at reduced efficiency, through the creation of
‘wastage’ – evidenced by the under-utilisation of their diverse workforce –
they cannot count themselves among the effective contributors to a striving
economy.
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HRODC Postgraduate Training Institute
A Postgraduate Training Institute, based
in United Kingdom, with International Operation, HRODC Postgraduate Training Institute
is registered with the UK Register of Learning Providers (UKRLP), of the Department for Business Innovation and Skills (BIS), formerly Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills
(DIUS). Its Registration Number is: 10019585 and can it be Verified at: http://www.ukrlp.co.uk/.
It has been engaged in Postgraduate
Training and Consultancy since 1996. Our Institute offers over 800 Diploma – Postgraduate – Short Courses, and 57 Postgraduate Diploma Programmes.
1.
Our
websites are:
2.
We
admit full-time students and delegates (short course participants) with
academic qualifications ranging from Undergraduate Degrees to PhDs;
3.
Classroom-based
Diploma – Postgraduate Short Courses are of a minimum of 5 days (30
Credit-Hours);
4.
The
equivalent Video-Enhanced On-Line (Video-Enabled Face-to-Face) delivery for a
5-day course is 10 days, based on 3 hours per day;
5.
Intensive
Full-Time {5 days (30 hours) per week direct lecturer-contact} Postgraduate
Diploma Programmes last 3 months (360 Credit-Hours);
6.
Full-Time
(15 hours direct lecturer-contact) Postgraduate Diploma Programmes are of 6
months’ duration (360 Credit-Hours);
7.
Video-Enhanced
On-Line Postgraduate Diploma Programmes (360 Credit-Hours) last 20 weeks. This
delivery is based on direct lecturer contact for 3 hours per day, 6 days per
week (http://www.hrodc-business-products-and-services.com/);
8.
Students
who successfully complete the Postgraduate Diploma will progress to a
Postgraduate Degree – MA, MBA, MSc - by a 15,000 to 20,000 words supervised
dissertation, the prerequisite for which is course #7 (Research Methodology);
9.
Courses
are delivered in over 30 Cities including Dubai, Kuala Lumpur, Paris, Milan,
Caracas, Manila, Manama, Istanbul, Jakarta;
10. The UK Deliveries are usually in Central
London and occasionally in Manchester, Birmingham and Wolverhampton;
11. Hotel ‘Academies’, Conference and
Meeting Rooms are utilised for course delivery purpose.
The
Programme and Course cost does not include living accommodation. However,
delegates are treated with the following:
Ø
Free Continuous snacks throughout
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Free Hot Lunch on Event Days;
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Free City Tour;
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Free Stationery;
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Free On-site Internet Access;
Ø
HRODC Postgraduate
Training Institute’s Postgraduate
Diploma; or
Ø
Certificate of
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HRODC
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HRODC Postgraduate Training Institute’s Leather Conference Folder;
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HRODC Postgraduate Training Institute’s Leather Conference (Computer – Phone) Bag – Black or Brown;
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HRODC Postgraduate Training Institute’s 8GB USB Flash Memory Drive, with Course/ Programme Material;
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HRODC Postgraduate Training Institute’s Metal Pen;
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HRODC Postgraduate Training Institute’s Polo Shirt.
**Please see product images, as a separate file
- Complimentary Products For Students, from HRODC Postgraduate Training
Institute**
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With Kindest Regards
ProfDr Crawford
Prof Dr Crawford
Director
