TRIANGULATING
RESEARCH METHODS IN CASE STUDIES: AN EMPIRICAL REPRESENTATION
A FREE RESEARCH
PAPER
Prof Dr Crawford – Director
HRODC Postgraduate Training
Institute
A Paper Presented to,
and Published Conference Proceedings of,
European
Conference on Research Methodology For Business and Management Studies
This paper presents convincing
argument supporting the need for a combined approach to data elicitation, with
illustration of how this can be achieved. Drawing on empirical evidence from
recent research, it explores the different stages of the process, demonstrating
how quantitative and qualitative data can enhance each other’s effectiveness.
Locating ethnography in a historical context, it presents a variety of
approaches, focusing on the value of the ‘complete participant as observer’
role in eliminating some inherent difficulties.
Key
Words: qualitative, quantitative, triangulation, research, participant, data.
1. Introduction
Implicit in the term methodology, is an incorporation
of all research activities, from the formulation stage to data elicitation and
analysis. It “refers to the way in which we approach problems and seek
answers” (Taylor and Bogdan 1984, p.1).
It encompasses all theoretical considerations, enlisting details of the actual
procedure of each aspect of the research process, (Brown, 1978; Doxiodes, 1986)
different methodologies producing varying aspects of the truth - necessitating
a combination to improve validity of findings.
The broad
empirical methodologies, qualitative or ethnographic (see e.g. Broadbent and
Laughlin, 1997; Boote and Mathews, 1999; Parker and Roffey, 1997; Leonard and
McAdam, 2001; Gilmore and Carson, 1996; Perry, 1998) – that Mitchell (1978)
would classify as social exchange theory - and quantitative methods, (see e.g.
Morris, 1996; Wisniewski and Stead, 1996) employ a somewhat different data
elicitation techniques that can be combined or triangulated, (see Denzin, 1978;
Colgate, 1998). These include experimentation,
observation, interviewing or questionnaire administration, critical incident,
conversation analysis, story telling and documentary analysis – the last
although capable of standing alone as a data elicitation and analysis
technique, is usually combined with others.
Despite some scepticism, many researchers, (e.g.
Blake, 1985), have found ethnographic studies not only interesting but also a
basis for generalisations. Since the
1960s, and at the instance of the qualitative methodology, a wealth of brilliant
studies has been produced. These researchers
include Stacey (1960), Rose (1952), Gans (1967), Bell and Newby (1977), Wax
(1971), Tipton (1973), Douglas (1976), Newby (1977), Gleeson and Mardle (1980).
This paper discusses pertinent aspects of research
methodologies, highlighting their interdependency, placing them in a historical
context, where appropriate. It provides a practical guide, to the process,
giving examples of triangulation (Denzin, 1978).
2. Research Methodologies and Techniques
Qualitative
methodology “field work, interpretive research, case study method, ethnography”
(Burgess, 1982, p.1), emerged in fifth century B.C. As Douglas (1976) observe,
‘on the spot’ reports were provided of foreigners, and of the Peloponnesian
Wars, evidence that there was descriptive reporting. It developed into a more
formal approach to social research, popularised in Britain and France in the
latter part of the eighteenth century
(Wax, 1971); Burgess (1982), Wax (1971)
According
to Burgess (1982), Urray made reference to the 1874 publication of Notes and
Queries, which spotted shortcomings in the questionnaires that were
prepared for travellers, and suggested that the information be gathered by
observation, setting the stage for the ensuing debate between positivists and non-positivists (Bottomore, 1972). The development of the Interpretive Paradigm
must have taken place latter, though, because phenomenology, from which
qualitative methodology gains its theoretical base, developed as a school of
philosophy- through Edmund Husserl’s inspiration (Garfinkel 1967) - did not emerge until the
eighteenth century (Townley and Middleton, 1986).
Although
having been in use for centuries, the term participant observation was only
coigned in 1924, by Edward Lindeman (Stacey, 1969). Just over forty years after the original
usage of the term, and in an attempt to re-establish its popularity, Louch
(1966) was rather persuasive of his readers, when he declares that: “… the sciences which deal with human action
are moral sciences, which require not measurement and experiment but appraisal,
reflection and detailed accounts of action in popular contexts” (Bottomore,
1972, p.50).
Ethnography is, at a state of increasing
popularity and credibility, after having moved slightly away from the centre
stage in the 1950s, giving rise to the systems theory (see Parsons, 1951) and
quantitative methodology. Nevertheless,
there was still a wealth of activities, which later brought much substance to
the field. Research Methods In The
Behavioural Sciences, for example, was first published in 1953 (Festinger
and Katz, 1954), with six direct contributions. It was also in the 1950s that
Young and Wilmot (1954) produced the results of their popular study on Family
and Kinship In East London.
2.1 Ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology, an extension of
the phenomenological perspective
(Pfohl, cited in Keel, 1985; Coulter, 1979) was developed by Garfinkel
in the 1950’s, the term having been coined by him, while he was writing up a
study of jury deliberations (Heritage, 1984).
It is not “a body of findings, not a method,
nor a theory, nor a world view …. but a
form of life” (Mehan and Wood, 1975, p.3).
Therefore it is not as simplistic as is viewed by Thomsen, Straubhaar
and Bolyard (1998), suggesting that it is a study of communities. Pfohl, (cited in Keel, R. 1985) clarifies
that unlike symbolic interactionists, ethnomethodologists do not assume that
people share common symbolic meanings, but share a ceaseless body of
interpretive work to convince themselves that they share the same common
meanings. Keel (2001), regarding
situational context, actors’ biographies and organisational demands as
significant, sees ethnomethodology as an extension of
Labelling Perspective, focusing on how labels and symbolic meanings are
attached to behaviour
Where ethnomethodology differs from
other methodologies, such as symbolic interactionism, is that it does not
necessarily deliver, with precise observable sequence but relates to its
history in people’s lives and times. Its
wide-ranging application includes the analysis of suicides contributing to its prevention (Hilbert,
1992). Boden (1994) states that ‘all
actions are embedded in a continuous stream of social relationships, which, in
turn, are framed by a historical context’.
Ethnomethodology can
enhance an understanding of the interactions between individuals within
particular settings, requiring that the researcher not only takes the place of
the observed, but to go beyond the spoken words and actions so as to derive the
meanings and significance of actions.
For example, within an organisation an individual might refer to a
situation, which might be taken as
clear-cut and simple, but has underlying and alternative meanings.
The situation,
exemplified by the context below, is indicative of the incompleteness of the
‘picture’ that is presented by the absence of the historical contest. What is
the reason behind the infuriation, of the informant in the excerpt below.
“There is no justification
in attending these meetings! What is the
point of attending and only listen to people talk and make decisions? Is it democratic for one to make a point,
which is paid no attention, and which is later hijacked by those who claim to
power-share. As far as I am concerned it
is their show and we must let them get on with it without interfering. Why do they invite us there if they do not
really want us? We must be seen and not
heard! They ‘will’ see me there
again!” (Crawford, 1994 p.216).
The historical context of
the above situation is that the participant was a member of a matrix type of
organisation, wherein he was accustomed to participating in decision making at
both corporate and operational levels. Therefore, an unexpected change in the
situation had affected his role and perception of reality. An observer, not
understanding this context, will find it difficult to realise why an individual
within such an apparently normal situation should find this degree of passivity
offensive.
2.2 Symbolic Interactionism
Blumer (1969, p. 2), suggests the symbolic
interactionism rests on three simple premises; “human beings act toward things
on the basis of the meanings that the things have for them.” “The meaning from which such things is
derived or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with one’s
fellows.” These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive
process used by the person in dealing with the things he encounters. It does
not necessarily relate to specific organisational or operational roles Kaarst-Brown (1999) suggests.
2.3 Discourse Analysis
What appears to
be a variant of symbolic interactionism is discourse analysis (Clark-Carter,
1998; Elliot, 1996; Shaw and Gould, 2001). It is concerned with the natural
occurrence of speech and its “social rather than linguistic organisation …,
variability in accounts which may reveal the situated functional character of
different versions, and with “interpretive
repertories”…..” (Elliot, 1996, p. 2). What distinguishes this approach
from others with similar technique is that it uses intervention to generate
diversity of response, rather than ensuring consistency. It assumes that
conversation does not contain pure facts but that participants express views
representing a choice from known alternatives (Clark-Carter, 1998). For Shaw
and Gould (2001) applied discourse analysis, like conversation analysis and
membership categorisation, is the analysis of ‘talk-in-interaction’ within
formal and informal settings.
2.4 Conversation Analysis
Boden and
Zimmerman (1991) observe that, conversation analysis is a derivative of
ethnomethodology, and is an analysis of the organization of conversational
interaction of endogenously generated sequential opportunities and constraints
different participants. Its central
concern is with elucidating the mechanisms of sequential organization of
interaction, that is, the way participants construct their interaction turn by
turn over its course (see also Boden, 1994) to accomplish an accountably
coherent exchange.
3. The Place of Gesture Studies – Kinesics and
Kinesiology- in Empirical Research
Both kinesics
(unconscious gestures) and kinesiology (conscious and controlled gestures) play
an important part in research, particularly qualitative techniques. A
researcher might deduce from gesture the seriousness of a threat posed by one
participant to another. For example, the pointing of the index and the rapid up
and down movement of the hand, ‘eye
fixity’, bodily stance and physical proximity (see e.g. Niles, 1994) might
provide an indication of its deep-seated anger and seriousness of the
utterance. This is opposed to the same words being spoken within the context of
a calm and relaxed posture, which is indicative of a friendly humorous
engagement (see Sundaram and Webster, 2000). Through gesture studies, an
interviewer will be able to detect when an informant or a respondent might be
reluctant to engage in a particular line of conversation or to discuss specific
issues (see Jolly, 2000; Fast, 1970). On the other hand, the observer will be advantageously
placed in noticing that an informant is issuing a non-verbal invitation to a
dialogue (see Givens, 2001; Sternberg, 1998). These observations will not only
be beneficial in continuous data elicitation but are also key ingredients in
ensuring objectivity and the maintenance of an effective ‘observer-observed
relationship’.
4. Managing The
Research Process
We might regard
the research process as being divided into five distinct stages: design; data
elicitation; analysis; interpretation and reporting. Two or more stages may,
however, be effected simultaneously. In conformance with the word limitation of
this article, the suggestions that are provided under these subheadings will be
necessarily brief – often bullet points. While much of the discussion in relates to quantitative type instruments,
advice will also be given on the qualitative aspects.
4.1 Research Design
While all stages
are important in meeting the research objectives, the design style sets the
tone for the rest of the project. Even though adjustments can be made to any
tentative aspects, a carefully thought out plan saves scarce resources
including time. The following are a few points worth noting.
·
Never start this exercise by writing the
questions first
·
Make a
list of things that you would like to find out
·
Make the list as precise as possible
·
Arrange
the list into groups – according to their similarity. This group will form a
guide to analysis and presentation of findings.
·
Decide on the method or a combination of methods
that you will use to collect the information that you require
·
Now, try to construct questions for the
information requiring interviews or questionnaire.
You might find the following activities useful:
4.1.1. As individuals, think of a ‘topic area’ that presents research
possibilities within your organization. In the columns provided, (Figure
1) record your thoughts on the
following, in the appropriate column:
·
In the left hand column of the grid (see example) list, as
precisely as possible, the information that you would like to find out
·
In the second column, record the data-gathering techniques
that you would like to use
·
In the third column, write down the difficulties that you are
likely to encounter with the information that you will attempt to elicit
·
In the final column, indicate how each of these anticipated
problems might be overcome
4.1.2. Individual members of each learning set should read
and comment on the information that others have written – offering insights,
where possible
4.1.3
Open the
discussion to other members of your learning set
4.1.4
Select one
proposal to present to the plenary
4.1,5 Each learning set should then prepare and present the
selected proposal.
Figure 1: Data Elicitation Guide
|
SPECIFIC INFORMATION SOUGHT
|
DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES
|
POSSIBLE
PROBLEMS
|
HOW PROBLEMS MIGHT BE RESOLVED
|
|
1. The number of male, female and members
of different ethnic groups who have applied for promoted positions, over the
past 2 years, and the number of these groups who have been successful.
|
1. Questionnaire
2. Interview
3. Documentary analysis
|
1. Lack of co-operation of respondents
2. Managers’ reluctance to grant permission
for research into a sensitive issue.
3. Difficulty gaining access to personnel
records
|
1. Assure potential respondents of
confidentiality.
2. Try to convince managers of the
contribution that your study will make to their effort to improve diversity
management.
3. Seek manager’s approval to view these
records before approaching the personnel department.
|
|
2. Whether there is parity in the extent
to which managers and team leaders utilise members of the workforce – on the
basis of their gender, race and ethnicity.
|
1. Interview
2. Questionnaire
3. Conversation analysis
|
|
4.2 Data Elicitation
Data elicitation involves the use
of the instruments or strategy, previously designed to collect information from
and about the subjects of your research. You might administer questionnaires,
or conduct interviews, stage focus groups or make observations or a combination
of these and other techniques.
The process might also involve the
analysis of reports and published works, which may include research findings.
However, it may be a comparative analysis of several research findings on one
subject - i.e. meta-analysis (secondary sources of information). Meta-analysis
is becoming increasingly popular, particularly in areas of controversy such as
gender and leadership effectiveness and others that have seen exhaustive
research efforts.
4.3 Data Analysis
Now that you have collected your data, it is time for us to
analyse, interpret and present the information. At this stage of your research,
you, in effect, sort out the data – deducing the relevant information,
presenting it in a meaningful way. The way in which we undertake this task will
depend largely on our data elicitation technique. The examples that I will
provide are suitable for most, including documentary analysis, interviews,
questionnaire administration, and observations.
There are several ways of achieving the first stage of this
exercise. My earlier suggestion for emphasis on closed ended, but not forced
choice, questions was given partially to facilitate computer analysis. Several
software packages are available, including the various versions of SPSS (now
Version 10) and most relational databases, such as Oracle. However, as applies
to the ‘other’ response in closed ended questions, qualitative data –
incorporating statements (string) – can be effectively dissected and coded,
facilitating computer analysis. Because computer analysis requires specific
treatment, this discussion on data analysis will assume that the activity is
being carried out manually.
We might take a step back to the design of our instruments,
when we specified the information that we needed from the investigation. At
this stage, we will ascertain the information that we would like to obtain from
the data by simply reviewing the specific objectives that we established
earlier (the ‘What I would like to find out?’). One practical way to approach
the analysis is to record the information in tabular form, as illustrated by
Tables 1 and 2, below.
Table 1: Gender Representation of the Sample
|
Number Of Female
|
Number of Male
|
Total Number Of
Informants
|
 |
|
|
|
20
|
30
|
50
|
Table 2: Age-range & Gender Representation of the
Sample
|
Age-range of Respondents
|
Number Of Female
|
Number of Male
|
Total Number Of Respondents
|
|
18 – 25
|
2
|
8
|
10
|
|
26 – 33
|
3
|
5
|
8
|
|
34 – 41
|
3
|
6
|
9
|
|
42 – 49
|
4
|
4
|
8
|
|
=50
|
8
|
7
|
15
|
|
Total
|
20
|
30
|
50
|
4.4 Interpretation
Having undertaken a thorough analysis of the data, we can now
attempt to contextualise the information. This means interpreting the
information or situation as it prevailed during the data elicitation period.
One simple example is that if you are analysing the gender composition of your
sample, not only do you need to present the actual figure, in numeric or
percentage value but you also need to affirm whether or not your sample, in
gender terms, is representative of the population. For instance, in our current
example, 40% of our sample is female - is this the gender representation of
your population?
4.5 Reporting
The following excerpt is an example of the contextualised
interpretation and reporting of empirical findings. Tables 3 & 4, to which
the excerpt refers, are chi-squared – with actual calculations. The level of
significance is set at p < 0.05. This means that there is only a 5% chance
of the null hypothesis being incorrectly rejected. In Table 3, the null
hypothesis (H0) is: There is no difference between the areas that
workers in Matrix Organisation and Hierarchic Organisation perceive as
advantageous. The test statistic supports the rejection of the null
hypothesis and the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis (H1): There
is a difference between the areas that workers in Matrix Organisation and
Hierarchic Organisation perceive as advantageous. The test statistic,
therefore, suggest that there is a 95% chance that there is a difference
between the way that the two sets of workers perceive their organisation (for clarification,
see e.g. Lapin, 1990; Kanji, 1993 and Barrow, 1995). Although the excerpt does
not refer to the chi-squared distribution, it provides a basis for assessing
the validity of the argument being proposed. While explanation of, and
justification for, the use of statistics is generally expected in empirical
discussions, one often assume that the reader is able to make an independent
judgement of these issues. It is outside the remit of this paper to enter this
discussion but it needs to be dealt with separately.
Table
3: Areas of organisational structure workers perceive to be Advantageous in
Matrix & Hierarchic Organisations (Power relations)
Features
|
|
MATRIX
|
HIERARCHIC
|
TOTAL
|
|
|
Clear lines of
authority
|
|
0 (5.59)
|
15 (9.41)
|
15
|
|
|
Individual decision responsibility
|
|
0 (1.12)
|
3 (1.88)
|
3
|
|
|
Instant decisions
|
|
0 (1.49)
|
4 (2.51)
|
4
|
|
|
Quick actions
|
|
0 (1.12)
|
3 (1.88)
|
3
|
|
|
Clear lines of communication
|
|
0 (2.61)
|
7 (4.39)
|
7
|
|
|
Clarity of responsibility
|
|
0 (9.31)
|
25 (15.69)
|
25
|
|
|
Worker autonomy
|
|
2 (1.12)
|
1 (1.88)
|
3
|
|
|
Less power struggle
|
|
0 (0.37)
|
1 (0.63)
|
1
|
|
|
Democratic
|
|
16 (6.33)
|
1 (10.67)
|
17
|
|
|
Alternative power source
|
|
1 (0.37)
|
0 (0.63
|
1
|
|
|
Less rigid identity
|
|
4 (1.49)
|
0 (2.51)
|
4
|
|
|
Power equalisation
|
|
6 (2.24)
|
0 (3.76)
|
6
|
|
|
None
|
|
9 (4.84)
|
4 (8.16)
|
13
|
|
|
|
Total
|
38
|
64
|
102
|
|
|
Null hypothesis
|
No difference
|
|
Alternative hypothesis
|
There is difference
|
|
Test statistic
|
c2
|
|
Significant level
|
0.05
|
|
Degree of freedom
|
13
|
|
Critical value
|
21.03
|
|
c2 = 12 df =å (0-E)2
|
|
E
|
|
= 5.59 +1.12 + 1.49 + 2.61 + 9.31 + 0.69 + 0.37 +
14.77+1.07+4.23+6.31 3.58 + 3.32 + 0.67 + 0.88 + 0.67 + 1.55 + 5.52 + 0.41 +
0.22 + 8.76 + 0.63 + 2.51 + 3.76 + 2.12. c2 = 83.28
|
|
Decision: As calculated c2 > critical value, we
reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
|
Table 4: Areas of Organisational
Structure Workers perceived Disadvantageous (Power relations
|
FEATURE
|
MATRIX
|
HIERARCHIC
|
TOTAL
|
|
Lack of accountability
|
3 (1.91)
|
0 (1.09)
|
3
|
|
Co-ordination
|
1 (1.28)
|
1 (0.72)
|
2
|
|
Role confusion
|
18 (11.48)
|
0 (6.52)
|
18
|
|
Low managerial control
|
5 (3.19)
|
0 (1.18)
|
5
|
|
Role conflict
|
1 (0.64)
|
0 (0.36)
|
1
|
|
Difficult to manage
|
6 (3.83)
|
0 (2.17)
|
6
|
|
Communication problems
|
6 (7.02)
|
5 (3.98)
|
11
|
|
Don't know who is in charge
|
6 (3.83)
|
0 (2.17)
|
6
|
|
Don't understand structure
|
3 (1.91)
|
0 (1.09)
|
3
|
|
Role dodging
|
16 (10.20)
|
0 (5.80)
|
16
|
|
Lack of discipline
|
2 (1.28)
|
0 (0.72)
|
2
|
|
Too many managers
|
3 (2.55)
|
1 (1.45)
|
4
|
|
Former structure better
|
2 (1.28)
|
0 (0.72)
|
2
|
|
None
|
0 (5.74)
|
9 (3.26)
|
9
|
|
Possible abuse of power
|
0 (2.55)
|
4 (1.45)
|
4
|
|
Unhealthy competition
|
0 (1.91)
|
3 (1.09)
|
3
|
|
Hierarchical dependence
|
0 (1.28)
|
2 (0.72)
|
2
|
|
Inflexible
|
0 (0.64)
|
1 (0.36)
|
1
|
|
Management isolated
|
0 (1.28)
|
2 (0.72)
|
2
|
|
Decisions may be unpopular
|
0 (0.64)
|
1 (0.36)
|
1
|
|
Elitist
|
0 (1.28)
|
2 (0.72)
|
2
|
|
Total
|
81
|
46
|
127
|
|
Null hypothesis
|
No Difference
|
|
Alternative hypothesis
|
There is difference
|
|
Test statistic
|
χ2
|
|
Significant level
|
0.05
|
|
Degree of freedom
|
23
|
|
Critical value
|
35.17
|
c2 = 23 df = å(0 - E)2
E=0.62 + 1.09 + 0.06 + 0.11
+ 3.70 + 3.70 + 1.03 + 1.81 + 0.20 + 0.36 + 1.23 + 2.17 + 0.15 + 0.26 + 1.23 +
2.17 + 0.62 + 1.09 + 3.30 + 5.80 + 1.45 + 2.54 + 0.20 + 0.36 + 8.30 + 14.60 +
0.41 + 0.72 + 0.08 + 0.14 + 0.14 + 0.72 + 0.57 + 10.11 + 2.55 + 4.48 + 1.91 +
3.35 + 1.28 + 2.23 + 0.64 + 1.14 + 1.28 + 2.28 + 0.64 + 1.14 + 1.28 + 2.28
c2 = 97.81
Decision: As calculated c2 >
critical value, we reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative
hypothesis.
In presenting your findings ensure that you:
·
Write in
direct speech – this will improve the impact of your argument
·
Always
refer to the sources that will support any claim that you make – e.g. tables,
graphs, documents (such as memoranda, letters, notices). This will improve its
credibility.
·
Complete
your write-up, and then revisit it within a few days. Most likely, you will
discover flaws or find more effective presentation techniques for your
information.
·
Where
possible, use a variety of visual forms of presentation – tables, graphs,
charts, and pictorials.
·
Distinguish
between tables and figures. Tables have numeric and percentage representations
in a tabular form. All other forms of visual representations are figures.
·
Tables
and figures must be numbered separately and consecutively; for example; Table
1; Table 2; Table 3; Figure 1; Figure 2; Figure 3.
·
Place
tables and figures near the point of discussion where you refer to them – as
soon as it convenient to do so.
·
Keep
each table and figure on the page – do not allow them to run-off the page.
·
Start
the whole presentation with a general introduction, but also introduce and
conclude each section or chapter
·
Try to
summarise your work, providing the basis for your conclusion (your final word
on the subject).
5. Using Qualitative And Quantitative
Techniques To Complement Each Other.
Using different techniques,
simultaneously, enhance reporting effectiveness and generate some level of objectivity. For
example, one could use both quantitative and qualitative methods incorporating
documentary analysis and interviews. The
interviews themselves could consist of both closed ended and open-ended items,
combined with observation. Kaarst-Brown (1999) for example has used different
data collection methods during her research. These included participant
observation; documentary analysis; semi-structured interviewing; focus groups
and informal meetings. While using quantitative, data appears to present a
sense of objectivity, the tables and figures, might not bring the situation to
life, in a way that qualitative methods can.
Lets follow the discussion below, without the qualitative element, and
then add the relevant statements including the verbatim.
As in the case of race and ethnicity, there is disparity in
the extent to which the sexes perceive managers as helpful. Just over 17% male
and no female perceive their managers as extremely supportive. 90% of the
female respondents and less than 30% of the male, describe their managers as
unsupportive, these differences in perception being significant. The
least that can be expected is that a table is presented (Table 5).
c2 =
23.837, df = 4, p < 0.000
Could any quantitative representation bring to life solution as
they report below:
"Welcome to Cuckoo Land!
"Is
it that they really do not understand, or are they just trying to be
obstructive? Every day, weekends inclusive, I have to take home boxes of files
– not for the show".
Pausing briefly, he grasped his attaché case, snapped
it open, documents flung in, and in ‘lightning swift’ succession securing the
‘flip locks’ – unscrambling their combination. Shrugging his shoulders
vertically, smiling broadly, he becons to the researcher – a signal to leave
the room. Slamming his office door – locking it ‘ratchet quick’ – he turns to
the long corridor ahead, nods to the researcher, and in a most apologetic
voice, suggests:
"Lets’ go!"
Having walked across the annex, overlooking the car park, the
researcher enquires:
"Are you on your way home?"
His unexpected response bellows as we advanced towards the
car park:
"I wish I could really say! – Home or work!"
Then pointing to the vacant lot, towards the sunset,
exclaimed:
"There
goes my social life! My family life is already gone! My …… was right – I ‘aam’
married to ‘mmy’ job.
"But is ….. not the only one who thinks so!?
"I
do believe that there is a limit, a time separation between work and leisure!
That work-life balance!
"I
must be daft! Very daft!"
Then
in an instant, after biding:
"Cheers!"
“He
deactivated his security system, prized his front door open, and offloaded his
luggage. Entering his car with a smile, he soon fastened his safety belt and
turned the ignition on. Affording a final but firm wave, he started the ignition,
and with an instantaneous movement, sped off as though to ‘ride into the
sunset’ or ‘meet one’s destiny” (Crawford, 2001a, p. 68).
On the other hand, we might add some
objectivity to qualitative elements of a report, through quantitative aspects.
For example, the following excerpt is an illustration of point being made
regarding communication frequency in specific divisional and matrix structures,
but which the accompanying table enhances.
“Matrix and
Hierarchic Organisations, respectively, required a high degree of
communication, thereby creating the problem of overload. This is demonstrated in the perceived
frequency with which workers receive communication. When asked “How often do you receive
information from others within the organisation?”, Almost 75% of informants in Matrix
Organisation, compared with less than 60% in its Hierarchic counterpart,
receive information infrequently Table
6 below – (Crawford, 1994).
Table
6: Levels of Information in Matrix and Hierarchic Organisation
|
Frequency
|
Matrix
Organisation
|
Hierarchic
Organisation
|
||
|
Number of
Informants
|
Percentage
Response
|
Number of
Informants
|
Percentage
Response
|
|
|
Very Often
|
37
|
74%
|
30
|
59%
|
|
Often
|
11
|
22%
|
20
|
39%
|
|
Seldom
|
2
|
4%
|
1
|
2%
|
|
Total
|
50
|
100%
|
51
|
100%
|
(Chi-square =
7.1 (df = 2) P = 0.0288 = Significantly different at 0.05 level)
Not only
verbatim enhance the meaningfulness of quantitative data but so also can
documentary analysis. Memoranda, minutes of meetings, letters and reports are
very good source of ‘rich’ information, from which excerpts can be drawn, to
add a spark of light to an otherwise dull report. Table 7, below, brings to our
attention the low rate of meeting attendance of workers in Matrix Organisation
(a case study setting). Although it brings out the important point of low
attendance, the following excerpts from three memoranda from its chief
executive can further enhance this factor.
Table7:
Attendance at Specialist Team/departmental meetings
|
Frequency
|
Matrix
Organisation
|
Hierarchic
Organisation
|
||
|
Number of Informants
|
Percentage of
Informants
|
Number of Informants
|
Percentage of
Informants
|
|
|
Always
|
27
|
54%
|
34
|
68%
|
|
Often
|
14
|
28%
|
12
|
24%
|
|
Seldom
|
8
|
16%
|
4
|
8%
|
|
Never
|
1
|
2%
|
0
|
0%
|
|
Total
|
50
|
100%
|
|
100%
|
[Chi-square =
3.29 (df = 3) p = 0.3490, No significant difference at 0.05 level]
“It is very
important that you attend, I shall be
reporting back information I have received about the quality assurance visit on
3 - 7 October. All workers will be
affected by the visit and it is likely that most of us will have inspectors
visiting our workstation. We therefore all need to discuss what will be
expected of us, strategies, etc” (Crawfprd, 1994 p. 210).
“… Any worker who thinks
he/she can operate in a vacuum without attending any meetings is out of touch
with reality, training and developments ….. attend and vote for change …. Do
not just ignore them because they are major centres for dissemination of
information and debate within this organisation…….” (Crawford, 1994 p.208)
“Meetings are a
major factor of workers involvement in the decision making process of the
organisation …” (Crawford, 1994, p. 208).
6. The ‘Complete Participant as Observer’: A New Ethical
Dimension of the ‘Participant Observer Relation Continuum.’
There are
different levels of participant observation, representing a researcher’s
varying degrees of involvement in the groups’ activities. The level of involvement of a researcher in
the work of a group is directly related to the extent with which its members
perceive him or her as part of that entity.
These perceptions are implicit in the five levels of involvement. They
are: the complete participant; the participant as observer; the observer as
participant; the complete observer (Stacey, 1969; Krusz & Miller, 1974;
Denzin, 1978; Bulmer, 1982; Cuff & Payne (eds), 1984; Mann, 1985) and the
complete participant as observer (Crawford, 2001b).
The last of these participant
observer levels, devised by the current researcher, supersedes the complete
participant, which totally conceals the research activity (Denzin, 1978; Mann,
1985; Cuff and Payne (eds.), 1984; Stacey, 1969; Krusz and Miller, 1974;
Bulmer, 1982). At this new level, the
researcher generally participates in the activities of the group under
investigation, while taking advantage of its members’ position as informants.
Relieved of the usual façade,
the participant observer, at this level, tries to establish a reasonable level
of relationship with respondents.
However, the researchers will find it necessary to balance her observer role
with that of a participant. This is
necessary because, although they seek to gain information, they need it to be
untarnished by their ‘role interchange’.
This means that their acceptance by
group members, as incumbents, will improve the process of information
gathering, rather than impairing their interpretation of the behaviour of
others. The participant-observer relation’s continuum (appendix 1) has been
designed by the current researcher to illustrate this new level of
relationship.
7. Eliminating Some Inherent Problems Of
Research
Whatever research methods are
used, a number of problems are likely to occur; some although relating
specifically to ethnography, include ethics, analysis, validity and
subjectivity. Ethics is a problem for the complete participant, where, at this
level of observation, the researcher’s role is characterised by total secrecy.
It neglects the right of individuals to agree to participate in any research.
The role of a ‘complete participant as observer’ provides for the traditional
level of participation but without the element of secrecy. Being formally engaged in organisational
activities – paid or voluntary should reveal the researcher role. The potential informants agreement is then
sought before any attempt is made to include data gathered from them and, or,
about them, in the research. As was the case of the current research, other
members will provide information because of the trust and responsibility, which
they accorded the researcher.
Researchers, particularly participant observers’
face the dilemma of moral commitment as a worker and research efficiency –
assuming that increased involvement in one role (researcher or participant)
results in a decreased effectiveness in the performance of the other. The new role, complete participant as
observer, facilitates effective observation, while enabling the researcher to
actively participate in group activities. The continuous presence of the
researcher did not alter the natural setting, assuming the maintenance of participants’ ‘normal’ behaviour, ensuring that colleagues
react normally to the various ‘stimuli’.
Data, which is collected through participant observation, is generally
difficult to analyse, because of the mass of information, which is generally
available. The current researcher has averted this problem by collecting and
arranging materials in time sequence, in the first place, then ordering them
according to the research outline. The interview materials and other documents,
which related to particular aspects of the scheme were marked and tucked away
in separate slots of a portfolio. Quite often materials, which are needed in
one section, are also required in another. In this case, photocopies are made,
to alleviate the problem of missing these important inclusions. Flat files,
with treasury tags (strings), and pocket files were often used, so as to
separate the different sections. These facilitated other insertions in the
desired order.
In an effort to keep the past in perspective, the researcher needs to
read each section through periodically, linking the past, present and future. Gradual analysis is thereby facilitated. This
is in preference to collecting the data over a long period, then attempting to
analyse them at the end (Evans 1987) of the observation. The Continuous
analysis serves the purpose of providing further bases for data collection.
Working in this way can also enable a researcher to modify or abandon the
original hypotheses.
While in the
field, the researcher should make deliberate attempts to analyse the data. One
way in which this was done is to identify the social interactions and
relationships, then relate to the setting (Oreinston and Phillips, 1978),
enabling the researcher to view these
interactions and relationships (see Thompson, 1980), not as the concrete and
specific behaviours they are, but as instances of more abstract and general
concepts. In other words, the events were abstracted and treated as encounters
which had specific meanings for the participants (Oreinston and Phillips,
1978). The current researcher also found it useful to have had a complete
picture of the research parameter, which was in the form of a tentative
outline. This provided the flexibility for widening or narrowing its scope,
whilst providing a relatively firm basis for data collection. Most importantly, though, this
scheme conserves the much needed energies (physical and inspirational).
Validity is seen as one of the major problems of research regardless of
the methodology employed. However, the intense knowledge of the
subjects, facilitated by participant observation, specifically the 'complete
participant as observer’ is an aid to validity. According to Taylor and Bogdan (1984, p.7): "if you know a person well enough, you
can usually tell when he or she is evading a subject or 'putting you
on".
Changes in the observer’s level of objectivity are a common
feature of field research. The long period spent in the field generally
results in the researcher becoming a full participant, thereby losing his or her
position as an analyst. This is the idea of 'going native’; the observer
becomes insensitive to crucial events within the field setting. In a number of
ways, the role of the 'complete participant as observer' helped the
researcher to alleviate this problem by
afforded him the opportunity to function without pretence, as a constant
reminder of his role. Reminders often came from colleagues who asked
questions such as: "How is it going? - I mean
your research".
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·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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·
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APPENDIX’
Participant- Observer Relation Continuum’
|
||||||
|
||||||
 |
||||||
Complete
Participant
|
Complete Participant As Observer
|
Participant As Observer
|
Observer As Participant
|
Complete Observer
|
|
Researcher is closely associated with informants and
is generally regarded as a member of their group. Highly subjective
assessment. Researcher activity has clandestine slant.
|
Researcher and participant roles enacted consciously
& openly. Clandestine element absent. Objectivity made possible.
|
Participant embraces the researcher role, but is
usually detached enough to make objective observations.
|
Little time spent with subject. Focus is on
observation with informant. Low level of interaction with subjects increases
objectivity.
|
Detached, with little interaction with subjects.
‘Distance’ facilitates a high level of objectivity.
|
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